The Bust of Charlemagne, an idealised portrayal and reliquary said to contain Charlemagne's skull cap, is located at Aachen Cathedral Treasury, and can be regarded as the most famous depiction of the ruler.
Charlemagne
(Latin: Carolus Magnus; 2 April 747[ – 28 January 814), a member of the Carolingian dynasty, was King of the Franks from 768, King of the Lombards from 774, and the Emperor of the Romans from 800. Charlemagne succeeded in uniting the majority of western and central Europe and was the first recognized emperor to rule from western Europe after the fall of the Western Roman Empire around three centuries earlier. The expanded Frankish state that Charlemagne founded was the Carolingian Empire. He was canonized by Antipope Paschal III—an act later treated as invalid—and he is now regarded by some as beatified (which is a step on the path to sainthood) in the Catholic Church.
802
The beginning of the era of the Khmer Empire is conventionally dated to 802, when King Jayavarman II declared himself chakravartin ("universal ruler", a title equivalent to "emperor") in the Phnom Kulen mountains. The end of the empire is marked with the Siege of Angkor by the Siamese Ayutthaya Kingdom, in 1431. The reason that the Khmer Empire collapsed is considered a mystery. Researchers have determined that a period of strong monsoon rains was succeeded by a drought in the region, which caused damage to infrastructure. Variability between droughts and flooding was also a problem. The collapse of the water system may have caused people to abandon the city of Angkor.
Picture of the Samanid Mausoleum, the burial site of Ismail Samani.
“Battle Between Abu’l-Qasim and the Samanid Muntasir”, 14th century illustration.
819
samanids
The Samanid Empire (Persian: سامانیان, romanized: Sāmāniyān) also known as the Samanian Empire, Samanid dynasty, Samanid amirate, or simply as the Samanids) was a Persianate Sunni Muslim empire, of Iranian dehqan origin. The empire was centred in Khorasan and Transoxiana; at its greatest extent encompassing Persia and Central Asia, from 819 to 999.
Four brothers—Nuh, Ahmad, Yahya, and Ilyas—founded the Samanid state. Each of them ruled territory under Abbasid suzerainty. In 892, Ismail Samani (892–907) united the Samanid state under one ruler, thus effectively putting an end to the feudal system used by the Samanids. It was also under him that the Samanids became independent of Abbasid authority.
The Samanid Empire is part of the Iranian Intermezzo, which saw the creation of a Persianate culture and identity that brought Iranian speech and traditions into the fold of the Islamic world. This later contributed to the formation of the Turko-Persian culture.
The Samanids promoted the arts, giving rise to the advancement of science and literature, and thus attracted scholars such as Rudaki, Ferdowsi, and Avicenna. While under Samanid control, Bukhara was a rival to Baghdad in its glory. Scholars note that the Samanids revived Persian language and culture more than the Buyids and the Saffarids while continuing to use Arabic for sciences as well as the religious studies. They considered themselves to be descendants of the Sasanian Empire. In a famous edict, Samanid authorities declared that "here, in this region, the language is Persian, and the kings of this realm are Persian kings."
840
wuzong
The Huichang Persecution of Buddhism (Chinese: 会昌毁佛) was initiated by Emperor Wuzong (Li Chan) of the Tang dynasty during the Huichang era (841–845). Among its purposes were to appropriate war funds and to cleanse Tang China of foreign influences. As such, the persecution was directed not only towards Buddhism but also towards other religions, such as Zoroastrianism, Nestorian Christianity, and Manicheism.
Emperor Wuzong's economic, social, and religious reasons for persecuting Buddhist organizations and temples throughout China were as follows:
Economic reasons: In 843 the emperor's armies won a decisive battle against the Uyghur tribes at the cost of almost bankrupting the country. Wuzong's solution to the financial crisis was to go after the wealth that had been accumulated in the Buddhist monasteries. Buddhism had flourished greatly during the Tang period, and its monasteries enjoyed tax-exempt status. In 845, Wuzong closed many Buddhist shrines, confiscated their property, and sent the monks and nuns home to lay life.
Social reasons: Confucian intellectuals such as Han Yu railed against Buddhism for undermining the social structure of China. They claimed it eroded the loyalty of son to father, and subject to ruler, by encouraging people to leave their families and to become monks and nuns. Once they had been ordained, they stopped engaging in economic activity such as agriculture and weaving, and live from the support of others. The persecution sought to return monks and nuns to the ranks of tax-paying commoners engaged in what was perceived to be more useful economic activity. Additionally, monastic money-lending, pawnbroking, and employment of slave labor were seen as inherently exploitative of the poor, with a decree in 713 stating, “it is claimed that the purpose of this generosity is to relieve the poor and orphans. But in fact there is nothing to it but excess and fraud. This is not a legitimate business.”
Religious reasons: While Wuzong saw Buddhism as a foreign religion that was harmful to Chinese society, he became a zealous follower of Taoism, a faith native to China. Buddhism preached the attainment of non-birth or Nirvana, which its critics equated with death, while Taoism promised immortality, a notion that increasingly captured the attention of the emperor as he grew older.
Portrait of Emperor Wuzong from Sancai Tuhui
853
Invaded the territory around Dublin in the 9th century, establishing the Norse Kingdom of Dublin, the earliest and longest-lasting Norse kingdom in Ireland. Its territory corresponded to most of present-day County Dublin. The Norse referred to the kingdom as Dyflin, which is derived from Irish Dubh Linn 'black pool'. The first reference to the Vikings comes from the Annals of Ulster and the first entry for 841 AD reads: "Pagans still on Lough Neagh". It is from this date onward that historians get references to ship fortresses or longphorts being established in Ireland. It may be safe to assume that the Vikings first over-wintered in 840–841 AD. The actual location of the longphort of Dublin is still a hotly debated issue. Norse rulers of Dublin were often co-kings, and occasionally also Kings of Jórvík in what is now Yorkshire. Under their rule, Dublin became the biggest slave port in Western Europe.
The earliest mention of Amlaíb Conung is in the Annals of Ulster, which in 853 describe his arrival in Ireland:
Amlaíb, son of the king of Lochlann, came to Ireland, and the foreigners of Ireland submitted to him, and he took tribute from the Irish.
Amlaíb is named in the annals as a "king of the foreigners", but in modern texts he is usually labelled the first king of Dublin, after the Viking settlement which was the base of his power.[10] His brothers arrived in Ireland later and ruled together as co-kings. The Fragmentary Annals go into more detail regarding Amlaíb's arrival :
Also in this year, i.e., the sixth year of the reign of Máel Sechlainn, Amlaíb Conung, son of the king of Lochlann, came to Ireland, and he brought with him a proclamation of many tributes and taxes from his father, and he departed suddenly. Then his younger brother Ímar came after him to levy the same tribute.
Dumbarton Rock (Alt Clut), captured by Amlaíb and Ímar after a four-month siege in 870
Jewelry of the Novgorod Slovenes
Rurik on the monument "Millennium of Russia" in Veliky Novgorod
Rurik and his brothers Sineus and Truvor arrive at Ladoga by Viktor Vasnetsov
Image of Rurik in the "Tsar's titularnik" 1672
novgorod 862
The Sofia First Chronicle makes initial mention of it in 859, while the Novgorod First Chronicle first mentions it in 862, when it was purportedly already a major Baltics-to-Byzantium station on the trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks. The Charter of Veliky Novgorod recognizes 859 as the year when the city was first mentioned. Novgorod is traditionally considered to be a cradle of Russian statehood.
The oldest archaeological excavations in the middle to late 20th century, however, have found cultural layers dating back to the late 10th century, the time of the Christianization of Rus' and a century after it was allegedly founded. Archaeological dating is fairly easy and accurate to within 15–25 years, as the streets were paved with wood, and most of the houses made of wood, allowing tree ring dating
The Varangian name of the city Holmgård or Holmgard (Holmgarðr or Holmgarðir) is mentioned in Norse Sagas as existing at a yet earlier stage, but the correlation of this reference with the actual city is uncertain. Originally, Holmgård referred to the stronghold, now only 2 km (1.2 miles) to the south of the center of the present-day city, Rurikovo Gorodische (named in comparatively modern times after the Varangian chieftain Rurik, who supposedly made it his "capital" around 860). Archaeological data suggests that the Gorodishche, the residence of the Knyaz (prince), dates from the mid-9th century , whereas the town itself dates only from the end of the 10th century; hence the name Novgorod, "new city", from Old East Slavic Новъ and Городъ (Nov and Gorod); the Old Norse term Nýgarðr is a calque of an Old Russian word. First mention of this Norse etymology to the name of the city of Novgorod (and that of other cities within the territory of the then Kievan Rus') occurs in the 10th-century policy manual De Administrando Imperio by Byzantine emperor Constantine VII.865
rhazès
Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (full name: أبو بکر محمد بن زکریاء الرازي, Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Zakariyyāʾ al-Rāzī) , c. 864 or 865–925 or 935 CE, often known as (al-) Razi or by his Latin name Rhazes, also rendered Rhasis, was a Persian physician, philosopher and alchemist who lived during the Islamic Golden Age. He is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in the history of medicine, and also wrote on logic, astronomy and grammar. He is also known for his criticism of religion, especially with regard to the concepts of prophethood and revelation. However, the religio-philosophical aspects of his thought, which also included a belief in five "eternal principles", are only recorded by authors who were often hostile to him.
A comprehensive thinker, al-Razi made fundamental and enduring contributions to various fields, which he recorded in over 200 manuscripts, and is particularly remembered for numerous advances in medicine through his observations and discoveries. An early proponent of experimental medicine, he became a successful doctor, and served as chief physician of Baghdad and Ray hospitals. As a teacher of medicine, he attracted students of all backgrounds and interests and was said to be compassionate and devoted to the service of his patients, whether rich or poor. He was the first to clinically distinguish between smallpox and measles, and suggest sound treatment for the former.
Through translation, his medical works and ideas became known among medieval European practitioners and profoundly influenced medical education in the Latin West. Some volumes of his work Al-Mansuri, namely "On Surgery" and "A General Book on Therapy", became part of the medical curriculum in Western universities. Edward Granville Browne considers him as "probably the greatest and most original of all the Muslim physicians, and one of the most prolific as an author". Additionally, he has been described as the father of pediatrics, and a pioneer of obstetrics and ophthalmology. Notably, he became the first physician to recognize the reaction of the eye's pupil to light.
Stained-glass window depicting al-Razi (Princeton University Chapel, c. 1924–1928)
al-Razi examining a patient (miniature painting by Hossein Behzad, 1894–1968)
Persian Scholar Pavilion in Vienna International Centre donated by Iran. Jun 2009
Colophon of al-Razi's Book of Medicine for Mansur
al-Razi in his laboratory (painting by Ernest Board, c. 1912)
al-Razi as depicted by Veloso Salgado (c. 1906)
Ingolf tager Island i besiddelse by Johan Peter Raadsig (1850)
Monument at Ingólfshöfði, the site where Ingólfur is said to have passed his first winter in Iceland
Ingólfr Arnarson
In some sources named Bjǫrnólfsson, (c. 849 – c. 910) is commonly recognized as the first permanent Norse settler of Iceland, together with his wife Hallveig Fróðadóttir and foster brother Hjörleifr Hróðmarsson. According to tradition, they settled in Reykjavík in 874.
878
edington
At the Battle of Edington, an army of the kingdom of Wessex under Alfred defeated the Great Heathen Army led by the Dane Guthrum on a date between 6 and 12 May 878, resulting in the Treaty of Wedmore later the same year. Primary sources locate the battle at "Eðandun". Until a scholarly consensus linked the battle site with the present-day village of Edington in Wiltshire, it was known as the Battle of Ethandun. This name continues to be used.
King Alfred's Tower (1772) on one supposed site of Egbert's Stone, the mustering place before the battle
Constellation Ophiuchus
The constellation Sagittarius from The Depiction of Celestial Constellations
Constellation Cancer
Constellation Gemini
Constellation Lepus
Constellation Taurus
Constellation Andromeda
Two pages from a 12th-century Iraqi illustrated manuscript of Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi's Book of Fixed Stars. The left hand page describes Corona Borealis (The Northern Crown), while the right hand page tabulates the stars in the preceding constellation Boötes (The Herdsman).
The Great Bear. The familiar seven stars of the "Big Dipper", recorded by Ptolemy, are visible in the rump and tail, but notice they occur as a mirror-image of what we actually see because Al Sufi provided two images of each constellation, one as we see it in the night sky and one as seen here on a celestial globe. The image is from the copy in the Bodleian Library, the oldest copy extant.
903
Abdelrahman al soufi
ʿAbd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Persian: عبدالرحمن صوفی; December 7, 903 – May 25, 986) was an iranian astronomer also known as ʿAbd ar-Rahman as-Sufi, ʿAbd al-Rahman Abu al-Husayn, ʿAbdul Rahman Sufi, or ʿAbdurrahman Sufi, historically, in the West as Azophi, Azophi Arabus, and Albuhassin. Al-Sufi published his famous Book of Fixed Stars (كتاب صور الكواكب) in 964, which included both textual descriptions and pictures. Al-Biruni reports that his work on the ecliptic was carried out in Shiraz. He lived at the Buyid court in Isfahan.
911
According to the Primary Chronicle, the first Rus'–Byzantine Treaty was concluded in 907 as a result of Oleg's raid against Constantinople (see Rus'–Byzantine War (907) for details). Scholars generally consider this document as preliminary to the Rus'–Byzantine Treaty of 911.
Oleg of Novgorod's campaign against Constantinople during the Rus'–Byzantine War in 907 (from the Radziwill Chronicle)
The fortified entrance to al-Mahdiyya today
Map of Abu Abdallah's campaigns and battles during the overthrow of the Aghlabids
Al-Azhar Mosque in Cairo, built by the Fatimids between 970 and 972
The Al-Hakim Mosque in Cairo, commissioned by al-Aziz in 990 and completed by al-Hakim in 1013 (later renovated in the 1980s by the Dawoodi Bohra)
909
fatimids
Fatimids conquered Tunisia and established the city of "al-Mahdiyya" (Arabic: المهدية). The Ismaili dynasty ruled territories across the Mediterranean coast of Africa and ultimately made Egypt the center of the caliphate. At its height, the caliphate included – in addition to Egypt – varying areas of the Maghreb, Sudan, Sicily, the Levant, and the Hijaz.
Between 902 to 909 the foundation of the Fatimid state was realized by the Kutama Berbers, under the leadership of the da'i (missionary) Abu Abdallah, whose conquest of Ifriqiya paved the way for the establishment of the Caliphate. After this conquest, Abdallah al-Mahdi Billah was retrieved from Sijilmasa and then accepted as the Imam of the movement, becoming the first Caliph and founder of the ruling dynasty in 909. In 921, the city of al-Mahdiyya was established as the capital. In 948, they shifted their capital to al-Mansuriyya, near Kairouan. In 969, during the reign of al-Mu'izz, they conquered Egypt, and in 973 the caliphate was moved to the new capital of Cairo. Egypt became the political, cultural, and religious centre of their empire, which developed a new and "indigenous Arabic" culture. After its initial conquests, the caliphate often allowed a degree of religious tolerance towards non-Shia sects of Islam, as well as to Jews and Christians. However, its leaders made little headway in persuading the Egyptian population to adopt its religious beliefs.
911
Rollo
(Norman: Rou, Rolloun; Old Norse: Hrólfr; French: Rollon; died between 928 and 933) was a Viking who, as Count of Rouen, became the first ruler of Normandy, today a region in northern France. He emerged as the outstanding warrior among the Norsemen who had secured a permanent foothold on Frankish soil in the valley of the lower Seine. After the Siege of Chartres in 911, Charles the Simple, the king of West Francia, granted them lands between the mouth of the Seine and what is now Rouen in exchange for Rollo agreeing to end his brigandage, swearing allegiance to him, religious conversion and a pledge to defend the Seine's estuary from Viking raiders.
The name Rollo is first recorded as the leader of these Viking settlers in a charter of 918, and he continued to reign over the region of Normandy until at least 928. He was succeeded by his son William Longsword in the Duchy of Normandy that he had founded. The offspring of Rollo and his followers, through their intermingling with the indigenous Frankish and Gallo-Roman population of the lands they settled, became known as the "Normans". After the Norman conquest of England and their conquest of southern Italy and Sicily over the following two centuries, their descendants came to rule England, much of Ireland, Sicily and Antioch from the 11th to 13th centuries, leaving behind an enduring legacy in the histories of Europe and the Near East.
Rollo, Duke of Normandy. Detail from the roll of the dukes of Normandy: Rollo, William, and Richard, with seven roundels showing Richard's children .
A genealogical chart of the Norman dynasty
Rollo's grave at the Cathedral of Rouen
A statue of Rollo in Ålesund, Norway
Medallion of Buyid amir 'Adud al-Dawla (r.936–983).
Gold ewer of the Buyid Period, mentioning Buyid ruler Izz al-Dawla Bakhtiyar ibn Mu'izz al-Dawla, 966-977 CE, Iran.
Rosewater bottle, Buyid art, early 12th century, Iran. Freer Gallery of Art.
Interior of Bardestan Castle.
Buyid era art: Painted, incised, and glazed earthenware. Dated 10th century, Iran. New York Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Ruins of the Buyid castle of Estanavand.
934
bouyides
The Buyid dynasty (Persian: آل بویه, romanized: Āl-e Būya), also spelled Buwayhid (Arabic: البويهية, romanized: Al-Buwayhiyyah), was a Shia Iranian dynasty of Daylamite origin, which mainly ruled over Iraq and central and southern Iran from 934 to 1062. Coupled with the rise of other Iranian dynasties in the region, the approximate century of Buyid rule represents the period in Iranian history sometimes called the 'Iranian Intermezzo' since, after the Muslim conquest of Persia, it was an interlude between the rule of the Abbasid Caliphate and the Seljuk Empire.
The Buyid dynasty was founded by 'Ali ibn Buya, who in 934 conquered Fars and made Shiraz his capital. His younger brother Hasan ibn Buya conquered parts of Jibal in the late 930s, and by 943 managed to capture Ray, which he made his capital. In 945, the youngest brother, Ahmad ibn Buya, conquered Iraq and made Baghdad his capital. He received the laqab or honorific title of Mu'izz al-Dawla ("Fortifier of the State"). The eldest, 'Ali, was given the title of 'Imad al-Dawla ("Support of the State"), and Hasan was given the title of Rukn al-Dawla ("Pillar of the State").
As Daylamite Iranians, the Buyids consciously revived symbols and practices of Iran's Sasanian Empire.Beginning with Imad al-Dawla, some of the Buyid rulers used the ancient Sasanian title of Shahanshah (شاهنشاه), literally "king of kings".The Buyids had many inscriptions carved at the Achaemenid ruins of Persepolis, thus suggesting a form of veneration of the site, which the Buyids thought was built by the mythical Iranian king Jamshid.
The Buyid dynasty reached its zenith under Adud al-Dawla (r. 949–983), who is remembered for his open-mindedness and building projects such as the Band-e Amir near Shiraz.[9] Under him, the Buyid realm stretched from the Byzantine border in Syria in the west to the borders of Khorasan in the east.
938
Bach Dang
At the Battle of Bạch Đằng River in 938 near Hạ Long Bay in northern Vietnam the military force of the Vietnamese Principality of Jinghai, led by Ngô Quyền, a Vietnamese lord, defeated the invading forces of the Chinese state of Southern Han and put an end to centuries of Chinese imperial domination in Vietnam during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.[3] It was considered the turning point in Vietnamese history.[4]
Đông Hồ woodblock depiction of Ngô Quyền leading his troops against Southern Han forces on the Bạch Đằng River, 938 AD
The Hungarian Battle of Lechfeld 955, an 1860 painting by Michael Echter
The Battle of Lechfeld, from a 1457 illustration in Sigmund Meisterlin's codex of Nuremberg history
955
lechfeld
The Battle of Lechfeld was a series of military engagements over the course of three days from 10–12 August 955 in which the Kingdom of Germany, led by King Otto I the Great, annihilated the Hungarian army led by Harka Bulcsú and the chieftains Lél and Súr. With the German victory, further invasions by the Magyars into Latin Europe were ended.
The Hungarians invaded the Duchy of Bavaria in late June or early July 955 with 8,000–10,000 horse archers, infantry, and siege engines, intending to draw the main German army, under Otto I, into battle in the open field and destroy it. The Hungarians laid siege to Augsburg on the river Lech. Otto I advanced to relieve the city with an army of 8,000 heavy cavalry, divided into eight legions.
As Otto I approached Augsburg on 10 August, a Hungarian surprise attack destroyed the Duchy of Bohemia rearguard legion. The Hungarian force stopped to plunder the German camp and Conrad, Duke of Lorraine led a counter-attack with heavy cavalry, dispersing the Hungarians. Otto I then brought his army into battle against the main Hungarian army that barred his way to Augsburg. The German heavy cavalry defeated the lightly armed and armored Hungarians in close combat, but the latter retreated in good order. Otto I did not pursue, returning to Augsburg for the night and sending out messengers to order all local German forces to hold the river crossings in Eastern Bavaria and prevent the Hungarians from returning to their homeland. On 11 and 12 August, the Hungarian defeat was transformed into disaster, as heavy rainfall and flooding slowed the retreating Hungarians and allowed German troops to hunt them down and kill them all. The Hungarian leaders were captured, taken to Augsburg and hanged.
The German victory preserved the Kingdom of Germany and halted nomad incursions into Western Europe for good. Otto I was proclaimed emperor and father of the fatherland by his army after the victory and he went on to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 962 largely on the basis of his strengthened position after the Battle of Lechfeld.
Emperor Taizu playing cuju with Zhao Pu, by the Yuan dynasty painter Qian Xuan (1235–1305)
Portrait of Emperor Taizu, who founded the Song dynasty
This depicts Song Taizu (宋太祖, 927-976, reigned 960-976), personal name Zhao Kuangyin (趙匡胤), the first emperor of the Song dynasty. This painting has neither the painter's seal nor signature. However, a small label had been attached to a blank area at the arm rest with the three characters "Song Taizu" (宋太祖). It probably was added when the scroll was remounted in the Qing dynasty (1644-1911).
The signature of Emperor Taizu of Song.
20th-century illustration of Zhao Kuangyin being proclaimed emperor by the army of the Later Zhou dynasty.
Tomb of Emperor Taizu in the Yongchang Mausoleum, Gongyi, Zhengzhou
Song Taizu's mother, Empress Dowager Du
960
zhao kuangyin
Emperor Taizu of Song (21 March 927[2] – 14 November 976),[3] personal name Zhao Kuangyin, courtesy name Yuanlang, was the founder and first emperor of the Song dynasty of China. He reigned from 960 until his death in 976. Formerly a distinguished military general of the Later Zhou dynasty, Emperor Taizu came to power after staging a coup d'état and forcing Emperor Gong, the last Later Zhou ruler, to abdicate the throne in his favour.
During his reign, Emperor Taizu conquered the states of Southern Tang, Later Shu, Southern Han and Jingnan, thus reunifying most of China proper and effectively ending the tumultuous Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. To strengthen his control, he lessened the power of military generals and relied on civilian officials in administration. He was succeeded by his younger brother, Zhao Kuangyi (Emperor Taizong).
Harald "Bluetooth" Gormsson
(Old Norse: Haraldr Blátǫnn Gormsson;[2] Danish: Harald Blåtand Gormsen, died c. 985/86) was a king of Denmark and Norway.
He was the son of King Gorm the Old and of Thyra Dannebod. Harald ruled as king of Denmark from c. 958 – c. 986. Harald introduced Christianity to Denmark and consolidated his rule over most of Jutland and Zealand. Harald's rule as king of Norway following the assassination of King Harald Greycloak of Norway was more tenuous, most likely lasting for no more than a few years in the 970s. Some sources say his son Sweyn Forkbeard forcibly deposed him from his Danish throne before his death.
The larger Jelling stone, showing the inscription concerning Harald
Curmsun disc with "Harald" inscription (Arald Curmsun) at the top lines
Harald Bluetooth being baptized by Bishop Poppo the missionary, probably ca. 960
![The Bluetooth wireless specification design was named after the king in 1997,[30] based on an analogy that the technology would unite devices the way Harald Bluetooth united the tribes of Denmark into a single kingdom.[31][32][33] The Bluetooth logo consists of a Younger Futhark bind rune for his initials, H (ᚼ) and B (ᛒ).[34]](https://cdn.myportfolio.com/ff06607a-f0aa-488c-b0b8-f85c8af97220/52d1c412-d325-402d-8f03-958481b3b169_rw_1200.png?h=7df56f644ac22872d26dacf5927bb7a5)
The Bluetooth wireless specification design was named after the king in 1997,[30] based on an analogy that the technology would unite devices the way Harald Bluetooth united the tribes of Denmark into a single kingdom.[31][32][33] The Bluetooth logo consists of a Younger Futhark bind rune for his initials, H (ᚼ) and B (ᛒ).[34]
Side view of the Throne of Charlemagne at Aachen Cathedral, where Otto was crowned King of Germany in 936
Contemporary image of Otto I, lower left, in one of the Magdeburg Ivories. Otto presents Magdeburg Cathedral to Christ and Saints, and is depicted smaller than them as a sign of humility.
Replica of the Magdeburger Reiter, an equestrian monument traditionally regarded as a portrait of Otto I (Magdeburg, original c. 1240)
The Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire. Otto was crowned as Emperor on February 2, 962 by Pope John XII.
Tomb of Otto I in Magdeburg Cathedral
962
Otto I
Otto I (23 November 912 – 7 May 973), traditionally known as Otto the Great (German: Otto der Große, Italian: Ottone il Grande), was East Frankish king from 936 and Holy Roman Emperor from 962 until his death in 973.[b] He was the oldest son of Henry the Fowler and Matilda of Ringelheim.
Otto inherited the Duchy of Saxony and the kingship of the Germans upon his father's death in 936. He continued his father's work of unifying all German tribes into a single kingdom and greatly expanded the king's powers at the expense of the aristocracy. Through strategic marriages and personal appointments, Otto installed members of his family in the kingdom's most important duchies. This reduced the various dukes, who had previously been co-equals with the king, to royal subjects under his authority. Otto transformed the church in Germany to strengthen royal authority and subjected its clergy to his personal control.
965
alhazen Ibn al-Haytham
Ḥasan Ibn al-Haytham, Latinized as Alhazen[10] (/ælˈhæzən/;[11] full name Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haytham أبو علي، الحسن بن الحسن بن الهيثم; c. 965 – c. 1040), was a medieval mathematician, astronomer, and physicist of the Islamic Golden Age from present-day Iraq.[12][13] Referred to as "the father of modern optics",[14][15] he made significant contributions to the principles of optics and visual perception in particular. His most influential work is titled Kitāb al-Manāẓir (Arabic: كتاب المناظر, "Book of Optics"), written during 1011–1021, which survived in a Latin edition.[16]
Ibn al-Haytham was an early proponent of the concept that a hypothesis must be supported by experiments based on confirmable procedures or mathematical evidence—an early pioneer in the scientific method five centuries before Renaissance scientists.[17][18][19][20] On account of this, he is sometimes described as the world's "first true scientist".[15] He was also a polymath, writing on philosophy, theology and medicine.[21] Ibn al-Haytham was the first to explain that vision occurs when light reflects from an object and then passes to one's eyes,[22] and to argue that vision occurs in the brain, pointing to observations that it is subjective and affected by personal experience.[23] He also stated the principle of least time which would later become the Fermat's principle.[24] He made major contributions to catoptrics and dioptrics by studying reflection, refraction and nature of images formed by light rays.[25][26]
Born in Basra, he spent most of his productive period in the Fatimid capital of Cairo and earned his living authoring various treatises and tutoring members of the nobilities.[27] Ibn al-Haytham is sometimes given the byname al-Baṣrī after his birthplace,[28] or al-Miṣrī ("the Egyptian").[29][30] Al-Haytham was dubbed the "Second Ptolemy" by Abu'l-Hasan Bayhaqi[31] and "The Physicist" by John Peckham.[32] Ibn al-Haytham paved the way for the modern science of physical optics.[33]
Selenographia (1647) by Johannes Hevelius, showing Alhasen (sic) representing reason and Galileo representing the senses.
The structure of the human eye according to Ibn al-Haytham. Note the depiction of the optic chiasm. —Manuscript copy of his Kitāb al-Manāẓir (Süleymaniye Mosque Library, Istanbul)
Alhazen's geometrically proven summation formula
The theorem of Ibn Haytham
The lunes of Alhazen. The two blue lunes together have the same area as the green right triangle.
Cover page of the Latin translation of Kitāb al-Manāẓir
968
dai viet
Đại Việt (大越, IPA: [ɗâjˀ vìət]; literally Great Việt), often known as Annam (Vietnamese: An Nam, Chữ Hán: 安南), was a monarchy in eastern Mainland Southeast Asia from the 10th century AD to the early 19th century, centered around the region of present-day Hanoi, Northern Vietnam. Its early name, Đại Cồ Việt,[note 1] was established in 968 by Vietnamese ruler Đinh Bộ Lĩnh after he ended the Anarchy of the 12 Warlords, until the beginning of the reign of Lý Thánh Tông (r. 1054–1072), the third emperor of the Lý dynasty. Đại Việt lasted until the reign of Gia Long (r. 1802–1820), the first emperor of the Nguyễn dynasty, when the name was changed to Việt Nam.[6][7]
An annotated diagram explaining the phases of the moon from one of al-Biruni's astronomical works. Sun (far right) – Earth (far left) and Lunar phases
The statue of Al-Biruni in United Nations Office in Vienna as a part of Persian Scholars Pavilion donated by Iran
Al-Biruni map
Diagram illustrating a method proposed and used by Al-Biruni to estimate the radius and circumference of the Earth
Four directions and Political divisions of Iran by Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī
973
al biruni
Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni /ælbɪˈruːni/ (973 – after 1050)[6] commonly known as al-Biruni, was a Khwarazmian Iranian[7][8][9][10] scholar and polymath during the Islamic Golden Age. He has been called variously the "founder of Indology", "Father of Comparative Religion",[11][9][12][13] "Father of modern geodesy", and the first anthropologist.[14][15]
Al-Biruni was well versed in physics, mathematics, astronomy, and natural sciences, and also distinguished himself as a historian, chronologist, and linguist.[9] He studied almost all the sciences of his day and was rewarded abundantly for his tireless research in many fields of knowledge.[16] Royalty and other powerful elements in society funded Al-Biruni's research and sought him out with specific projects in mind. Influential in his own right, Al-Biruni was himself influenced by the scholars of other nations, such as the Greeks, from whom he took inspiration when he turned to the study of philosophy.[17] A gifted linguist, he was conversant in Khwarezmian, Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit, and also knew Greek, Hebrew, and Syriac. He spent much of his life in Ghazni, then capital of the Ghaznavids, in modern-day central-eastern Afghanistan. In 1017 he travelled to the Indian subcontinent and wrote a treatise on Indian culture entitled Tārīkh al-Hind (History of India), after exploring the Hindu faith practiced in India.[a] He was, for his time, an admirably impartial writer on the customs and creeds of various nations, his scholarly objectivity earning him the title al-Ustadh ("The Master") in recognition of his remarkable description of early 11th-century India.[9]
977
ghaznévides
The Ghaznavid dynasty (Persian: غزنویان Ġaznaviyān) was a culturally Persianate, Sunni Muslim dynasty of Turkic mamluk origin,[b] ruling at its greatest extent, large parts of Persia, Khorasan, much of Transoxiana and the northwest Indian subcontinent from 977 to 1186. The dynasty was founded by Sabuktigin upon his succession to the rule of Ghazna after the death of his father-in-law, Alp Tigin, who was an ex-general of the Samanid Empire from Balkh, north of the Hindu Kush in Greater Khorasan.
Sabuktigin's son, Mahmud of Ghazni, expanded the Ghaznavid Empire to the Amu Darya, the Indus River and the Indian Ocean in the east and to Rey and Hamadan in the west. Under the reign of Mas'ud I, the Ghaznavid dynasty began losing control over its western territories to the Seljuk Empire after the Battle of Dandanaqan in 1040, resulting in a restriction of its holdings to modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan (Punjab and Balochistan).
In 1151, Sultan Bahram Shah lost Ghazni to the Ghurid sultan Ala al-Din Husayn. The Ghaznavids retook Ghazni, but lost the city to the Ghuzz Turks who in turn lost it to Muhammad of Ghor. In response, the Ghaznavids fled to Lahore, their regional capital. In 1186, Lahore was conquered by the Ghurid sultan, Muhammad of Ghor, with its Ghaznavid ruler, Khusrau Malik, imprisoned and later executed.
Ghaznavid fortress of Lashkari Bazar in Lashkargah, ancient Bost, southern Afghanistan. It was founded by Mahmud of Ghazni in 998-1030 CE.
Mahmud of Ghazni at his court (center) receives a robe from Caliph Al-Qadir; painting by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani.
Mahmud of Ghazni receiving Indian elephants as tribute (Majmu al-Tawarikh, Hafiz i-Abru, Herat, 1425).
![Figures in the wall paintings from the Ghaznavid palace of Lashkari Bazar in central Afghanistan, probably built by Masud I (1030-41); with black-and-white line drawing of the left figure, by the discoverer Daniel Schlumberger (1978).[40] The figures wear the typical Turkic attire.](https://cdn.myportfolio.com/ff06607a-f0aa-488c-b0b8-f85c8af97220/18fc3e89-6b5f-415e-b72e-a75656812235_rw_1200.jpg?h=ff726d5414ab997bc45a14e5b17c8c15)
Figures in the wall paintings from the Ghaznavid palace of Lashkari Bazar in central Afghanistan, probably built by Masud I (1030-41); with black-and-white line drawing of the left figure, by the discoverer Daniel Schlumberger (1978).[40] The figures wear the typical Turkic attire.
![The Kara-Khanid ruler "Ilig Khan" on horse, submitting to Mahmud of Ghazni, who is riding an elephant, in 1017. They agreed to partition former Samanid territory along the Oxus river.[50] Persian painting published circa 1306-14.](https://cdn.myportfolio.com/ff06607a-f0aa-488c-b0b8-f85c8af97220/37423655-bcd9-40e9-90c9-e8c764fbe0e2_rw_1920.jpg?h=1844c8133e62d630e18acc573483d35a)
The Kara-Khanid ruler "Ilig Khan" on horse, submitting to Mahmud of Ghazni, who is riding an elephant, in 1017. They agreed to partition former Samanid territory along the Oxus river.[50] Persian painting published circa 1306-14.
Mas'ud III's minaret in Ghazni was at least 44 meters tall, before its top half crumbled in 1902 due to an earthquake. It was built between 1099 and 1115 CE. It stood next to the Palace of Sultan Mas'ud III.
Vessel with bull's head spout, Ghaznavid dynasty, late 11th to early 12th century, bronze. Linden-Museum – Stuttgart, Germany
Detail of the Intricate Brickwork on the Mas'ud III Ghazni minaret.
Marble wall border, Palace of Sultan Mas'ud III, Ghazni, Afghanistan, 12th century CE.
The Mausoleum of Avicenna, Hamadan, Iran
Canons of medicine book from Avicenna, Latin translation located at UT Health of San Antonio
Inside view of the Avicenna Mausoleum, designed by Hooshang Seyhoun in 1945–1950
The statue of Avicenna in United Nations Office in Vienna as a part of the Persian Scholars Pavilion donated by Iran
The oldest copy of Avicenna, page two of his "Qanun fi al-Tibb" is from 1030 AD.
980
avicenne
Ibn Sina (Persian: ابن سینا; 980 – June 1037 CE), commonly known in the West as Avicenna (/ˌævɪˈsɛnə, ˌɑːvɪ-/), was a Persian[4] polymath who is regarded as one of the most significant physicians, astronomers, philosophers, and writers of the Islamic Golden Age,[5] and the father of early modern medicine.[6][7][8][9] Sajjad H. Rizvi has called Avicenna "arguably the most influential philosopher of the pre-modern era".[10] He was a Muslim Peripatetic philosopher influenced by Greek Aristotelian philosophy. Of the 450 works he is believed to have written, around 240 have survived, including 150 on philosophy and 40 on medicine.[11]
His most famous works are The Book of Healing, a philosophical and scientific encyclopedia, and The Canon of Medicine, a medical encyclopedia[12][13][14] which became a standard medical text at many medieval universities[15] and remained in use as late as 1650.[16] Besides philosophy and medicine, Avicenna's corpus includes writings on astronomy, alchemy, geography and geology, psychology, Islamic theology, logic, mathematics, physics, and works of poetry.[17]
Erik Thorvaldsson
(c. 950 – c. 1003), known as Erik the Red, was a Norse explorer, described in medieval and Icelandic saga sources as having founded the first European settlement in Greenland. He most likely earned the epithet "the Red" due to the color of his hair and beard.[1][2] According to Icelandic sagas, he was born in the Jæren district of Rogaland, Norway, as the son of Thorvald Asvaldsson. One of Erik's sons was the well-known Icelandic explorer Leif Erikson.[3]
Eric the Red (Eiríkur rauði). Woodcut frontispiece from the 1688 Icelandic publication of Arngrímur Jónsson's Gronlandia (Greenland). Fiske Icelandic Collection. EIREKUR hinn Ravde/, fyrste Ladnams madr Grænlands. Hop bygd i Grænlande, ANNO 986.
988
Vladimir I Sviatoslavich
Vladimir I Sviatoslavich or Volodymyr I Sviatoslavych[6] (Old East Slavic: Володимѣръ Свѧтославичь, Volodiměrъ Svętoslavičь;[a][b] c. 958 – 15 July 1015), nicknamed the Great,[8] was Prince of Novgorod, Grand Prince of Kiev, and ruler of Kievan Rus' from 980 to 1015.[9][10]
Vladimir's father was Prince Sviatoslav I of Kiev of the Rurikid dynasty.[11] After the death of his father in 972, Vladimir, who was then prince of Novgorod, was forced to flee to Scandinavia in 976 after his brother Yaropolk murdered his other brother Oleg of Drelinia, becoming the sole ruler of Rus'. In Sweden, with the help of his relative Ladejarl Håkon Sigurdsson, ruler of Norway, he assembled a Varangian army and reconquered Novgorod from Yaropolk.[12] By 980, Vladimir had consolidated the Rus realm from modern-day Belarus, Russia and Ukraine to the Baltic Sea and had solidified the frontiers against incursions of Bulgarians, Baltic tribes and Eastern nomads. Originally a follower of Slavic paganism, Vladimir converted to Christianity in 988[13][14][15] and Christianized the Kievan Rus'.[11] Due to this act, which fundamentally altered the historical trajectory of the Rus' and led to his declaration as a saint in both Western Christianity and the Eastern Orthodox Church, Vladimir is thus also known as Saint Vladimir or Saint Volodymyr.
The Primary Chronicle reports that in the year 987, after consultation with his boyars, Vladimir the Great sent envoys to study the religions of the various neighboring nations whose representatives had been urging him to embrace their respective faiths. The result is described by the chronicler Nestor. He reported that Islam was undesirable due to its prohibition of alcoholic beverages and pork.[24] Vladimir remarked on the occasion: "Drinking is the joy of all Rus'. We cannot exist without that pleasure."[24] Ukrainian and Russian sources also describe Vladimir consulting with Jewish envoys and questioning them about their religion, but ultimately rejecting it as well, saying that their loss of Jerusalem was evidence that they had been abandoned by God.
His emissaries also visited pre-schism Latin Church and Eastern Christian missionaries.[citation needed] Ultimately Vladimir settled on Eastern Christianity. In the churches of the Germans his emissaries saw no beauty; but at Constantinople, where the full festival ritual of the Byzantine Church was set in motion to impress them, they found their ideal: "We no longer knew whether we were in heaven or on earth", they reported, describing a majestic Divine Liturgy in Hagia Sophia, "nor such beauty, and we know not how to tell of it." Vladimir was impressed by this account of his envoys.
In 988, having taken the town of Chersonesos in Crimea, he boldly negotiated for the hand of emperor Basil II's sister, Anna.[25] Never before had a Byzantine imperial princess, and one "born in the purple" at that, married a barbarian, as matrimonial offers of French kings and German emperors had been peremptorily rejected. In short, to marry the 27-year-old princess to a pagan Slav seemed impossible. Vladimir was baptized at Chersonesos, however, taking the Christian name of Basil out of compliment to his imperial brother-in-law; the sacrament was followed by his wedding to Anna.[when?] Returning to Kiev in triumph, he destroyed pagan monuments and established many churches, starting with a church dedicated to St. Basil,[26] and the Church of the Tithes (989).[16]
Arab sources, both Muslim and Christian, present a different story of Vladimir's conversion. Yahya of Antioch, al-Rudhrawari, al-Makin, al-Dimashqi, and ibn al-Athir all give essentially the same account.[27] In 987, Bardas Sclerus and Bardas Phocas revolted against the Byzantine emperor Basil II. Both rebels briefly joined forces, but then Bardas Phocas proclaimed himself emperor on 14 September 987. Basil II turned to the Kievan Rus' for assistance, even though they were considered enemies at that time. Vladimir agreed, in exchange for a marital tie; he also agreed to accept Christianity as his religion and to Christianize his people. When the wedding arrangements were settled, Vladimir dispatched 6,000 troops to the Byzantine Empire, and they helped to put down the revolt.[28]
991
danegeld
Danegeld (/ˈdeɪnɡɛld/;[1] "Danish tax", literally "Dane yield" or tribute) was a tax raised to pay tribute or protection money to the Viking raiders to save a land from being ravaged. It was called the geld or gafol in eleventh-century sources. It was characteristic of royal policy in both England and Francia during the ninth through eleventh centuries, collected both as tributary, to buy off the attackers, and as stipendiary, to pay the defensive forces. The term danegeld did not appear until the late eleventh century. In Anglo-Saxon England tribute payments to the Danes was known as gafol and the levy raised to support the standing army, for the defense of the realm, was known as heregeld (army-tax).
The runestone U 241 in Lingsberg, Uppland, Sweden, was raised by the grandchildren of Ulfríkr circa 1050 in commemoration of his twice receiving danegeld in England.
The runestone U 344 in Orkesta, Uppland, Sweden, raised in memory of the Viking Ulf of Borresta, says that three times he had taken danegeld in England. The first one was with Skagul Toste, the second one with Thorkell the Tall and the last one with Canute the Great.
The runestone U 194, in a grove near Väsby, Uppland, Sweden, was raised by a Viking in commemoration of his receiving one danegeld in England.
Leiv Eirikson Discovering America by Christian Krohg (1893)
![Modern recreation of the Norse site at L'Anse aux Meadows. The site was originally occupied c. 1021[22] and listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site in 1968…](https://cdn.myportfolio.com/ff06607a-f0aa-488c-b0b8-f85c8af97220/eee33c83-f5d1-42b0-b50b-356f9ca7c025_rw_1200.jpg?h=1c1628ac0867165a46132d3f4140ce73)
Modern recreation of the Norse site at L'Anse aux Meadows. The site was originally occupied c. 1021[22] and listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site in 1968…
A 'Leif Ericson' proof dollar from the United States, minted in 2000. It reads 'Founder of the New World'
The character 'Leif Ericson' features in this Japanese manga adaptation of the Vinland sagas.
Leif Eriksson Discovers America by Hans Dahl (1849–1937)
Leif Erikson
Leiv Eiriksson, or Leif Ericson,[note 1] also known as Leif the Lucky (c. 970 – c. 1019 to 1025), was a Norse explorer who is thought to have been the first European to have set foot on continental North America, approximately half a millennium before Christopher Columbus.[6][7] According to the sagas of Icelanders, he established a Norse settlement at Vinland, which is usually interpreted as being coastal North America. There is ongoing speculation that the settlement made by Leif and his crew corresponds to the remains of a Norse settlement found in Newfoundland, Canada, called L'Anse aux Meadows, which was occupied 1,000 years ago (carbon dating estimates 990–1050 CE).[8][9][10]
Leif was the son of Erik the Red, the founder of the first Norse settlement in Greenland, and Thjodhild (Þjóðhildur) of Iceland. His place of birth is not known,[11] but he is assumed to have been born in Iceland, which had recently been colonized by Norsemen mainly from Norway.[12][13][14] He grew up in the family estate Brattahlíð in the Eastern Settlement in Greenland. Leif had two known sons: Thorgils, born to noblewoman Thorgunna in the Hebrides; and Thorkell, who succeeded him as chieftain of the Greenland settlement.
1013
Æthelred II
Æthelred II (Old English: Æþelræd, pronounced [ˈæðelræːd];[n 1], Old Norse: Aðalráðr c. 966 – 23 April 1016), known as Æthelred the Unready, was King of the English from 978 to 1013 and again from 1014 until his death in 1016.[1] His epithet does not derive from the modern word "unready", but rather from the Old English unræd meaning "poorly advised"; it is a pun on his name, which means "well advised".
Æthelred was the son of King Edgar the Peaceful and Queen Ælfthryth.[1] He came to the throne at about the age of 12, following the assassination of his older half-brother, King Edward the Martyr.
The chief problem of Æthelred's reign was conflict with the Danes. After several decades of relative peace, Danish raids on English territory began again in earnest in the 980s, becoming markedly more serious in the early 990s. Following the Battle of Maldon in 991, Æthelred paid tribute, or Danegeld, to the Danish king. In 1002, Æthelred ordered what became known as the St. Brice's Day massacre of Danish settlers. In 1013, King Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark invaded England, as a result of which Æthelred fled to Normandy in 1013 and was replaced by Sweyn. After Sweyn died in 1014, Æthelred returned to the throne, but he died just two years later. Æthelred's 37-year combined reign was the longest of any Anglo-Saxon English king, and was only surpassed in the 13th century, by Henry III. Æthelred was briefly succeeded by his son, Edmund Ironside, but he died after a few months and was replaced by Sweyn's son Cnut.
A charter of Æthelred's in 1003 to his follower, Æthelred. British Library, London
Gold mancus of Æthelred wearing armour, 1003–1006
Ethelred the Unready, circa 968-1016. Illuminated manuscript, The Chronicle of Abindon, c.1220. MS Cott. Claude B.VI folio 87, verso, The British Library.
Reproduction of a Song note, possibly a Jiaozi, redeemable for 770 mò.
Jiaozi
was a form of promissory note which appeared around the 11th century in the Sichuan capital of Chengdu, China. Numismatists regard it as the first paper money in history, a development of the Chinese Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE). Early Jiaozi notes did not have standard denominations but were denominated according to the needs of the purchaser and ranged from 500 wén to 5 guàn. The government office that issued these notes or the Jiaozi wu (Chinese: 交子務) demanded a payment or exchange fee (Chinese: 紙墨費) of 30 wén per guàn exchanged from coins to banknote. The Jiaozi were usually issued biannually.[1] In the region of Liang-Huai (Chinese: 兩淮) these banknotes were referred to as Huaijiao (淮交) and were introduced in 1136 but their circulation stopped quickly after their introduction. Generally the lower the denominations of the Jiaozi the more popular they became, and as the government was initially unable to properly regulate their production, their existence eventually led to undesirably high rates of inflation.
To combat counterfeiting, jiaozi were stamped with multiple banknote seals.
As bankruptcy plagued several merchant companies the government nationalised and managed the production of paper money and founded the Jiaozi wu (交子務) in 1023. The first series of standard government notes was issued in 1024 with denominations such as 1 guàn (貫, or 700 wén), 1 mín (緡, or 1000 wén), up to 10 guàn. In 1039 only banknotes of 5 and 10 guàn were issued, and in 1068 a denomination of 1 guàn was introduced which became 40% of all circulating Jiaozi banknotes.
Shen Kuo
(Chinese: 沈括; 1031–1095) or Shen Gua, courtesy name Cunzhong (存中) and pseudonym Mengqi (now usually given as Mengxi) Weng (夢溪翁),[1] was a Chinese polymathic scientist and statesman of the Song dynasty (960–1279). Shen was a master in many fields of study including mathematics, optics, and horology. In his career as a civil servant, he became a finance minister, governmental state inspector, head official for the Bureau of Astronomy in the Song court, Assistant Minister of Imperial Hospitality, and also served as an academic chancellor.[2] At court his political allegiance was to the Reformist faction known as the New Policies Group, headed by Chancellor Wang Anshi (1021–1085).
In his Dream Pool Essays or Dream Torrent Essays[3] (夢溪筆談; Mengxi Bitan) of 1088, Shen was the first to describe the magnetic needle compass, which would be used for navigation (first described in Europe by Alexander Neckam in 1187).[4][5] Shen discovered the concept of true north in terms of magnetic declination towards the north pole,[5] with experimentation of suspended magnetic needles and "the improved meridian determined by Shen's [astronomical] measurement of the distance between the pole star and true north".[6] This was the decisive step in human history to make compasses more useful for navigation, and may have been a concept unknown in Europe for another four hundred years (evidence of German sundials made circa 1450 show markings similar to Chinese geomancers' compasses in regard to declination)
The Bencao on traditional Chinese medicine; printed with woodblock printing press in 1249; Shen grew ill often as a child, and so developed an interest in medicinal cures.
Painting of a Buddhist luohan, by Liu Songnian, painted in 1207; Shen Kuo not only listed literati painting as one of his cherished pastimes, but also Buddhist meditation.
A side view of a pound lock for canals, invented in China in the 10th century and described by Shen.
Bamboo and rocks by Li Kan (1244–1320); using evidence of fossilized bamboo within China's dry northwestern climate zone, Shen Kuo hypothesized that climates naturally shifted geographically over time.
View of the Taihang Mountains, where Shen Kuo had his epiphany about geomorphology.
One of the five star maps published in 1092 AD for Su Song's horological and astronomical treatise, featuring Shen Kuo's corrected position of the pole star.
Statue of Anawrahta in front of the National Museum
Statue of Anawrahta in front of the DSA
The Burmese green peacock is a royal symbol of Burma and has been used in its flags.
Anawrahta Minsaw
(Burmese: အနော်ရထာ မင်းစော, pronounced [ʔənɔ̀jətʰà mɪ́ɰ̃ sɔ́]; 11 May 1014 – 11 April 1077) was the founder of the Pagan Empire. Considered the father of the Burmese nation, Anawrahta turned a small principality in the dry zone of Upper Burma into the first Burmese Empire that formed the basis of modern-day Burma (Myanmar).[2][3] Historically verifiable Burmese history begins with his accession to the Pagan throne in 1044.[4]
Anawrahta unified the entire Irrawaddy valley for the first time in history, and placed peripheral regions such as the Shan States and Arakan (Rakhine) under Pagan's suzerainty. He successfully stopped the advance of Khmer Empire into Tenasserim coastline and into Upper Menam valley, making Pagan one of two main kingdoms in mainland Southeast Asia.
In 1044 however, Min Saw raised a rebellion at nearby Mount Popa, and challenged Sokkate to single combat. According to the chronicles, the reason for his uprising was that Sokkate had just raised Min Saw's mother as queen. Sokkate is said to have addressed Min Saw as brother-son, which the latter took great offense. Sokkate accepted the challenge to single combat on horseback. On 11 August 1044, Min Saw slew Sokkate at Myinkaba, near Pagan.[note 8] The king and his horse both fell into the river nearby.
Min Saw first offered the throne to his father. The former king, who had long been a monk, refused. On 16 December 1044, Min Saw ascended the throne with the title of Anawrahta, a Burmanized form of Sanskrit name Aniruddha (अनिरुद्ध).[note 9] His full royal style was Maha Yaza Thiri Aniruddha Dewa (မဟာ ရာဇာ သီရိ အနိရုဒ္ဓ ဒေဝ; Sanskrit: Mahā Rājā Śrī Aniruddha Devá). Burmese history now begins to be less conjectural.
1054
the Great Schism
The East–West Schism, also known as the Great Schism or Schism of 1054, is the ongoing break of communion between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches since 1054. It is estimated that, immediately after the schism occurred, a slim majority of Christians worldwide were Eastern Christians; most of the rest were Western Christians. The schism was the culmination of theological and political differences between Eastern and Western Christianity that had developed during the preceding centuries.
A series of ecclesiastical differences and theological disputes between the Greek East and Latin West preceded the formal split that occurred in 1054. Prominent among these were the procession of the Holy Spirit (Filioque), whether leavened or unleavened bread should be used in the Eucharist, the bishop of Rome's claim to universal jurisdiction, and the place of the See of Constantinople in relation to the pentarchy.
In 1053, the first action was taken that would lead to a formal schism: the Greek churches in southern Italy were required to conform to Latin practices, under threat of closure. In retaliation, Patriarch Michael I Cerularius of Constantinople ordered the closure of all Latin churches in Constantinople. In 1054, the papal legate sent by Leo IX travelled to Constantinople in order, among other things, to deny Cerularius the title of "ecumenical patriarch" and insist that he recognize the pope's claim to be the head of all of the churches.[1] The main purposes of the papal legation were to seek help from the Byzantine emperor, Constantine IX Monomachos, in view of the Norman conquest of southern Italy, and to respond to Leo of Ohrid’s attacks on the use of unleavened bread and other Western customs,[12] attacks that had the support of Cerularius. The historian Axel Bayer says that the legation was sent in response to two letters, one from the emperor seeking help to organize a joint military campaign by the eastern and western empires against the Normans, and the other from Cerularius.[13] When the leader of the legation, Cardinal Humbert of Silva Candida, O.S.B., learned that Cerularius had refused to accept the demand, he excommunicated him, and in response Cerularius excommunicated Humbert and the other legates.[1] According to Ware, "Even after 1054 friendly relations between East and West continued. The two parts of Christendom were not yet conscious of a great gulf of separation between them. … The dispute remained something of which ordinary Christians in East and West were largely unaware".[14]
The validity of the Western legates' act is doubtful because Pope Leo had died and Cerularius' excommunication only applied to the legates personally.[1] Still, the Church split along doctrinal, theological, linguistic, political, and geographical lines, and the fundamental breach has never been healed: each side occasionally accuses the other of committing heresy and of having initiated the schism. Reconciliation was made more difficult by the Latin-led Crusades, the Massacre of the Latins in 1182, the West's retaliation via the Sacking of Thessalonica in 1185, the capture and pillaging of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade in 1204, and the imposition of Latin patriarchs.[1] Establishing Latin hierarchies in the Crusader states meant that there were two rival claimants to each of the patriarchal sees of Antioch, Constantinople, and Jerusalem, making the existence of schism clear.[15] Several attempts at reconciliation did not bear fruit.
The enthronement of Michael I Cerularius, from the Madrid Skylitzes
Lead seal of Michael Cerularius as Patriarch of Constantinople
1051 charter of Leo IX
Throne room inside the Patriarchate of Constantinople. The Gospel is enthroned on the dais; the patriarch sits on the lower throne in front.
The Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem – a centre of Christian pilgrimage long shared and disputed among the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Catholic Churches.
![Henry at Canossa, history painting by Eduard Schwoiser [de] (1862)](https://cdn.myportfolio.com/ff06607a-f0aa-488c-b0b8-f85c8af97220/6f4253d9-223f-4f9b-9813-d8cf5b82def1_rw_1200.jpg?h=36cdf42080721ce1fbbeddfbe6fd4d54)
Henry at Canossa, history painting by Eduard Schwoiser [de] (1862)
Henry at Canossa, history painting by Eduard Schwoiser (1862) , A 1583 image of Henry at Canossa, by English Protestant John Foxe. The print depicts Henry as a dignified ruler, contrasted with Gregory's contemptuous supporters and Gregory himself, identified as Antichrist, who is depicted in the wiles of Matilda.…
Plaque with Bismarck's quote erected in 1877 at Harzburg Castle
A 15th century depiction of the 11th century Almoravid general Abu Bakr ibn Umar ("Rex Bubecar") near the Senegal River in 1413 Majorcan chart. Abu Bakr was known for his conquests in Africa.
An Almoravid dinar coin from Seville, 1116. (British Museum); the Almoravid gold dinar would set the standard of the Iberian maravedí.
Detail of the Almoravid minbar, commissioned by Ali Bin Yusuf Bin Tashfin al-Murabiti 1137 for his great mosque in Marrakesh.
The Almoravid Qubba in Marrakesh.
Interior of the Great Mosque of Tlemcen
Detail of the Almoravid-era bronze overlays on the doors of al-Qarawiyyin's Bab al-Gna'iz.
Fragment of the shroud of San Pedro de Osma, early 12th century: the imagery features pairs of lions and harpies, surrounded by men holding griffins
1057
almoravids
The Almoravid dynasty (Arabic: المرابطون, romanized: Al-Murābiṭūn, lit. 'those from the ribats') was an imperial Berber Muslim dynasty centered in the territory of present-day Morocco. It established an empire in the 11th century that stretched over the western Maghreb and Al-Andalus, starting in the 1050s and lasting until its fall to the Almohads in 1147. The Almoravid capital was Marrakesh, a city founded by the Almoravid leader Abu Bakr ibn Umar c. 1070. The dynasty emerged from a coalition of the Lamtuna, Gudala, and Massufa, nomadic Berber tribes living in what is now Mauritania and the Western Sahara,[11][12] traversing the territory between the Draa, the Niger, and the Senegal rivers.[13][14]
The Almoravids were crucial in preventing the fall of Al-Andalus (Muslim rule in Iberia)[15] to the Iberian Christian kingdoms, when they decisively defeated a coalition of the Castilian and Aragonese armies at the Battle of Sagrajas in 1086. This enabled them to control an empire that stretched 3,000 km (1,900 mi) north to south. Their rulers never claimed the title of caliph and instead took on the title of Amir al-Muslimīn ("Prince of the Muslims") while formally acknowledging the overlordship of the Abbasid Caliphs in Baghdad.[16] However, the rule of the dynasty was relatively short-lived. The Almoravids fell—at the height of their power—when they failed to stop the Masmuda-led rebellion initiated by Ibn Tumart. As a result, their last king Ishaq ibn Ali was killed in Marrakesh in April 1147 by the Almohad Caliphate, which replaced them as a ruling dynasty both in the Maghreb and Al-Andalus.
1066
hastings
The Battle of Hastings[a] was fought on 14 October 1066 between the Norman-French army of William, the Duke of Normandy, and an English army under the Anglo-Saxon King Harold Godwinson, beginning the Norman Conquest of England. It took place approximately 7 mi (11 km) northwest of Hastings, close to the present-day town of Battle, East Sussex, and was a decisive Norman victory.
The background to the battle was the death of the childless King Edward the Confessor in January 1066, which set up a succession struggle between several claimants to his throne. Harold was crowned king shortly after Edward's death, but faced invasions by William, his own brother Tostig, and the Norwegian King Harald Hardrada (Harold III of Norway). Hardrada and Tostig defeated a hastily gathered army of Englishmen at the Battle of Fulford on 20 September 1066, and were in turn defeated by Harold at the Battle of Stamford Bridge five days later. The deaths of Tostig and Hardrada at Stamford Bridge left William as Harold's only serious opponent. While Harold and his forces were recovering, William landed his invasion forces in the south of England at Pevensey on 28 September 1066 and established a beachhead for his conquest of the kingdom. Harold was forced to march south swiftly, gathering forces as he went.
The exact numbers present at the battle are unknown as even modern estimates vary considerably. The composition of the forces is clearer: the English army was composed almost entirely of infantry and had few archers, whereas only about half of the invading force was infantry, the rest split equally between cavalry and archers. Harold appears to have tried to surprise William, but scouts found his army and reported its arrival to William, who marched from Hastings to the battlefield to confront Harold. The battle lasted from about 9 am to dusk. Early efforts of the invaders to break the English battle lines had little effect. Therefore, the Normans adopted the tactic of pretending to flee in panic and then turning on their pursuers. Harold's death, probably near the end of the battle, led to the retreat and defeat of most of his army. After further marching and some skirmishes, William was crowned as king on Christmas Day 1066.
There continued to be rebellions and resistance to William's rule, but Hastings effectively marked the culmination of William's conquest of England. Casualty figures are hard to come by, but some historians estimate that 2,000 invaders died along with about twice that number of Englishmen. William founded a monastery at the site of the battle, the high altar of the abbey church supposedly placed at the spot where Harold died.
Bayeux Tapestry - Scene 57: the death of King Harold at the Battle of Hastings. Titulus: HIC HAROLD REX INTERFECTUS EST (Here King Harold is slain)
On landing at Pevensey, William established a castle within the ruins of the Roman fort. While the outermost walls date from the Roman period, the surviving buildings of the inner bailey post-date William.
Norman knights and archers at the Battle of Hastings, as depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry
Scene from the Bayeux Tapestry depicting mounted Norman soldiers attacking Anglo-Saxons who are fighting on foot in a shield wall
Reenactment in front of Battle Abbey
Ruins of the monks' dormitory at Battle Abbey
Alp Arslan humiliating Emperor Romanos IV. From a 15th-century illustrated French translation of Boccaccio's De Casibus Virorum Illustrium.
In this 15th-century French miniature depicting the Battle of Manzikert, the combatants are clad in contemporary Western European armour.
Settlements and regions affected during the first wave of Turkish invasions in Asia Minor (until 1204).
Çamlıca Mosque, Istanbul
1071
mantzikert
The Battle of Manzikert or Malazgirt was fought between the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk Empire on 26 August 1071 near Manzikert, theme of Iberia (modern Malazgirt in Muş Province, Turkey). The decisive defeat of the Byzantine army and the capture of the Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes[9] played an important role in undermining Byzantine authority in Anatolia and Armenia,[10] and allowed for the gradual Turkification of Anatolia. Many Turks, travelling westward during the 11th century, saw the victory at Manzikert as an entrance to Asia Minor.[11]
The brunt of the battle was borne by the Byzantine army's professional soldiers from the eastern and western tagmata, as large numbers of mercenaries and Anatolian levies fled early and survived the battle.[12] The fallout from Manzikert was disastrous for the Byzantines, resulting in civil conflicts and an economic crisis that severely weakened the Byzantine Empire's ability to defend its borders adequately.[13] This led to the mass movement of Turks into central Anatolia – by 1080, an area of 78,000 square kilometres (30,000 sq mi) had been gained by the Seljuk Turks. It took three decades of internal strife before Alexius I (1081 to 1118) restored stability to Byzantium. Historian Thomas Asbridge says: "In 1071, the Seljuqs crushed an imperial army at the Battle of Manzikert (in eastern Asia Minor), and though historians no longer consider this to have been an utterly cataclysmic reversal for the Greeks, it still was a stinging setback."[14] It was the first, and only, time in history that a Byzantine emperor became the prisoner of a Muslim commander, and the first time since the emperor Valerian that a Roman emperor was captured alive by an enemy force.
1073
omar khayyam
Ghiyāth al-Dīn Abū al-Fatḥ ʿUmar ibn Ibrāhīm Nīsābūrī[3][4] (18 May 1048 – 4 December 1131), commonly known as Omar Khayyam (Persian: عمر خیّام),[a] was a polymath, known for his contributions to mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, and Persian poetry.[5] He was born in Nishapur, the initial capital of the Seljuk Empire. As a scholar, he was contemporary with the rule of the Seljuk dynasty around the time of the First Crusade.
As a mathematician, he is most notable for his work on the classification and solution of cubic equations, where he provided geometric solutions by the intersection of conics.[6] Khayyam also contributed to the understanding of the parallel axiom.[7]: 284 As an astronomer, he calculated the duration of the solar year with remarkable precision and accuracy, and designed the Jalali calendar, a solar calendar with a very precise 33-year intercalation cycle[8][9]: 659 that provided the basis for the Persian calendar that is still in use after nearly a millennium.
There is a tradition of attributing poetry to Omar Khayyam, written in the form of quatrains (rubāʿiyāt رباعیات). This poetry became widely known to the English-reading world in a translation by Edward FitzGerald (Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, 1859)
The French-Lebanese writer Amin Maalouf based the first half of his historical fiction novel Samarkand on Khayyam's life and the creation of his Rubaiyat. The sculptor Eduardo Chillida produced four massive iron pieces titled Mesa de Omar Khayyam (Omar Khayyam's Table) in the 1980s.[89][90]
The lunar crater Omar Khayyam was named in his honour in 1970, as was the minor planet 3095 Omarkhayyam discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Zhuravlyova in 1980.[91]
Google has released two Google Doodles commemorating him. The first was on his 964th birthday on 18 May 2012. The second was on his 971st birthday on 18 May 2019.[92]
Mausoleum of Omar Khayyam in Nishapur, Iran. Some of his rubáiyáts are used as calligraphic (taliq script) decoration on the exterior body of his mausoleum.
"Cubic equation and intersection of conic sections" the first page of a two-chaptered manuscript kept in Tehran University.
Omar Khayyam's construction of a solution to the cubic x3 + 2x = 2x2 + 2. The intersection point produced by the circle and the hyperbola determine the desired segment.
Ottoman Era inscription of a poem written by Omar Khayyam at Morića Han in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
A line of English translation of ''The Moving Finger'' quatrain. Persian Rubiyats of Omar Khayyam on one the faculty buildings of Leiden University
"At the Tomb of Omar Khayyam" by Jay Hambidge (1911).
The statue of Khayyam in United Nations Office in Vienna as a part of Persian Scholars Pavilion donated by Iran.
![Henry at Canossa, history painting by Eduard Schwoiser [de] (1862)](https://cdn.myportfolio.com/ff06607a-f0aa-488c-b0b8-f85c8af97220/cc5d17a4-5820-40cc-82a7-e8edf102fe48_rw_1200.jpg?h=ac4066a891a95860a7f78121425f6901)
Henry at Canossa, history painting by Eduard Schwoiser [de] (1862)
Henry asks Matilda and Abbot Hugh of Cluny to intervene in the dispute, Vita Mathildis (c. 1115).
A 1583 image of Henry at Canossa, by English Protestant John Foxe. The print depicts Henry as a dignified ruler, contrasted with Gregory's contemptuous supporters and Gregory himself, identified as Antichrist, who is depicted in the wiles of Matilda.…
Plaque with Bismarck's quote erected in 1877 at Harzburg Castle
1077
The Road to Canossa or Humiliation of Canossa
The Road to Canossa or Humiliation of Canossa (Italian: L'umiliazione di Canossa), or, sometimes, the Walk to Canossa (German: Gang nach Canossa/Kanossa) was the journeying to Canossa Castle in 1077 of the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry IV, and his subsequent ritual submission there to Pope Gregory VII. It took place during the Investiture controversy and involved the Emperor seeking absolution and the revocation of his excommunication by the Pope who had been staying at the castle as the guest of Margravine Matilda of Tuscany.
According to contemporary sources, he was forced to supplicate himself on his knees waiting for three days and three nights before the entrance gate of the castle, while a blizzard raged. Indeed, the episode has been described as "one of the most dramatic moments of the Middle Ages". It has also spurred much debate among medieval chroniclers as well as modern historians, who argue about whether the walk was a "brilliant masterstroke" or a humiliation.
1085
avempace
Abū Bakr Muḥammad ibn Yaḥyà ibn aṣ-Ṣā’igh at-Tūjībī ibn Bājja (Arabic: أبو بكر محمد بن يحيى بن الصائغ التجيبي بن باجة), best known by his Latinised name Avempace (/ˈeɪvəmpeɪs/;[2] c. 1085 – 1138), was an Arab[3] Andalusian polymath,[1] whose writings include works regarding astronomy, physics, and music, as well as philosophy, medicine, botany, and poetry.[1][4]
He was the author of the Kitāb an-Nabāt ("The Book of Plants"), a popular work on botany, which defined the sex of plants.[5] His philosophical theories influenced the work of Ibn Rushd (Averroes) and Albertus Magnus.[1] Most of his writings and books were not completed (or well-organized) due to his early death. He had a vast knowledge of medicine, mathematics, and astronomy. His main contribution to Islamic philosophy was his idea on soul phenomenology, which was never completed.
Avempace was, in his time, not only a prominent figure of philosophy but also of music and poetry.[6] His diwan (Arabic: collection of poetry) was rediscovered in 1951. Though many of his works have not survived, his theories in astronomy and physics were preserved by Moses Maimonides and Averroes respectively,[1] and influenced later astronomers and physicists in the Islamic civilization and Renaissance Europe, including Galileo Galilei.[7]
Avempace wrote one of the first (argued by some to be the first) commentaries on Aristotle in the Western world. While his work on projectile motion was never translated from Arabic to Latin, his views became well known around the Western world and to Western philosophers, astronomers, and scientists of many disciplines. His works impacted contemporary medieval thought, and later influenced Galileo and his work. Avempace's theories on projectile motion are found in the text known as "Text 71".
In 2009, a crater 199k km (62 mi) from the South Pole of the Moon was designated The Ibn Bajja crater by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in his honor.
Interior of the Palacio de la Aljafería in actual Zaragoza. The place where the Muslim intellectuals gather, between those who are Avempace.
La Aljafería, palace of the Taifa and Saraqusti Almoravid kings. Avempace was vizier to Ibn Tifilwit between 1115 and 1117.
1085
The siege of Toledo
The siege of Toledo (Arabic: سقوط طليطلة, lit. 'Fall of Ṭulayṭula') was Alfonso VI of León and Castile's siege and conquest of Toledo, capital of the Taifa of Toledo, from Yahya al-Qadir of the Dhulnunid dynasty in Muharram 478 / May 1085.[1][2] The Castilian conquest of the former Visigothic capital was achieved through a strategy of attrition warfare developed by Castile in the preceding years.[3] As it represented a shift in power on the Iberian peninsula, the siege of Toledo was the most significant event in the taifa period.[3]
In 1075, through an alliance with the Taifa of Seville, Alfonso VI defeated the Taifa of Granada.[1] Later in the same year, Alfonso VI supported Toledo against the Taifa of Córdoba.[1] When the king of Toledo, Yahya al-Mamun, was assassinated in Córdoba, Yahya al-Qadir assumed power in Toledo.[4] He expelled Alfonso's supporters, fomenting division among his subjects.
Alfonso VI first set up camp south of Toledo in the autumn of 1084. This was a permanent camp, the purpose of which was to harass the city continually until Alfonso returned with a substantial army the following year. Alfonso himself was back in León by December.[5]
Alfonso brought his main forces in mid-March 1085.[6] After a siege of about two months, Yahya al-Qadir—who was unable to gain support from neighboring taifas, pay off Alfonso VI, or defend the city himself—surrendered. The terms, accepted May 6, 1085, included guarantees for Muslims' lives, property, liberty, and religious expression.[6] Agreements with the Jewish population of Toledo were made separately.[6] Alfonso formally entered the city on May 25, and by August his forces had conquered the surrounding territories in the Tagus Basin—including Madrid—adding them to the Kingdom of Castile.
The fall of Toledo caused the rulers of the taifas of Seville, Badajoz, and Granada to send a joint delegation to Yusuf ibn Tashfin of the Almoravid dynasty seeking assistance against the Castile.
1086
The Battle of Sagrajas
also called Zalaca or Zallaqa (Arabic: معركة الزلاقة, romanized: Maʿrakat az-Zallāqa), was a battle between the Almoravid army led by their King Yusuf ibn Tashfin and an army led by the Castilian King Alfonso VI. The Almoravids responded to the call of Jihad by the taifas which commonly fought amongst themselves however they had united to battle the powerful Christian states to the north. The Taifas aided the Almoravids during the battle with troops, favoring the battle for the Muslim side. The battleground was later called az-Zallaqah (in English "slippery ground") because of the poor footing caused by the tremendous amount of bloodshed that day, which gave rise to its name in Arabic.
Illustration by Alfredo Roque Gameiro in the book História de Portugal, popular e ilustrada, by Manuel Pinheiro Chagas
European clocks should have protnplrd them to open their doors, previously so carefully and for so long kept closed against the foreign barbarians. Mechanized Astronomical Models Now that we have seen the manner in which mech- anized astronomical models developed in China, we can detect a similar line running from Hellenistic time, through India and Islam to the medieval Europe that inherited their learning. There are many diffcr- Figure 4.—Astronomical Clock Tower of .Su Sgun in K'ai-feng, ca. A. D. logo, from an original drawing by John Christiansen. (Courtesy of Cam- bridge University Press.) enccs, notably because of the especial development of that peculiar characteristic of the West, mathematical astronomy, conditioned by the almost accidental con- flux of Babylonian arithmetical methods with those of Greek geometry. However, the lines are surpris- ingly similar, with the exception only of the crucial in\ention of the escapement, a feature which seems to be replaced by the influx of ideas connected with per- petual motion wheels. 88 BULLETIN 218: CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNONOGY
The original diagram of Su's book showing the inner workings of his clocktower
A star map with equidistant cylindrical projection, from Su Song's Xinyi Xiangfayao, 1092
A modern replica of a Ming dynasty era armillary sphere found at the Beijing Ancient Observatory
1094
su song
Su Song (Chinese: 蘇頌; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: So͘ Siōng, 1020–1101), courtesy name Zirong (Chinese: 子容; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Chú-iông),[1] was a Chinese polymathic scientist and statesman. Excelling in a variety of fields, he was accomplished in mathematics, astronomy, cartography, geography, horology, pharmacology, mineralogy, metallurgy, zoology, botany, mechanical engineering, hydraulic engineering, civil engineering, invention, art, poetry, philosophy, antiquities, and statesmanship during the Song dynasty (960–1279).
Su Song was the engineer for a hydro-mechanical astronomical clock tower in medieval Kaifeng, which employed an early escapement mechanism.[2][3][4][5] The escapement mechanism of Su's clock tower had been invented by Tang dynasty Buddhist monk Yi Xing and government official Liang Lingzan in 725 AD to operate a water-powered armillary sphere, although Su's armillary sphere was the first to be provided with a mechanical clock drive.[5][6][7] Su's clock tower also featured the oldest known endless power-transmitting chain drive, called the tian ti (天梯), or "celestial ladder", as depicted in his horological treatise.[8] The clock tower had 133 different clock jacks to indicate and sound the hours.[9] Su Song's treatise about the clock tower, Xinyi Xiangfayao (新儀象法要), has survived since its written form in 1092 and official printed publication in 1094. The book has been analyzed by many historians, such as the British biochemist, historian, and sinologist Joseph Needham. The clock itself, however, was dismantled by the invading Jurchen army in 1127 AD, and although attempts were made to reassemble it, the tower was never successfully reinstated.
The Xinyi Xiangfayao was Su's best-known treatise, but the polymath compiled other works as well. He completed a large celestial atlas of several star maps, several terrestrial maps, as well as a treatise on pharmacology. The latter discussed related subjects on mineralogy, zoology, botany, and metallurgy.
European Jesuit visitors to China like Matteo Ricci and Nicolas Trigault briefly wrote about Chinese clocks with wheel drives,[10] but others mistakenly believed that the Chinese had never advanced beyond the stage of the clepsydra, incense clock, and sundial.[11] They thought that advanced mechanical clockworks were new to China and that these mechanisms were something valuable that Europeans could offer to the Chinese.[11] Although not as prominent as in the Song period, contemporary Chinese texts of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) described a relatively unbroken history of mechanical clocks in China, from the 13th century to the 16th.[12] However, Su Song's clock tower still relied on the use of a waterwheel to power it, and was thus not fully mechanical like late medieval European clocks.
1095
Pope Urban II
Pope Urban II (Latin: Urbanus II; c. 1035 – 29 July 1099), otherwise known as Odo of Châtillon or Otho de Lagery,[2][A] was the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 12 March 1088 to his death. He is best known for convening the Council of Clermont which ignited the series of Christian conquests known as the Crusades.[3][4]
Pope Urban was a native of France, and was a descendant of a noble family from the French commune of Châtillon-sur-Marne.[5][6] Reims was the nearby cathedral school where he began his studies in 1050.[7]
Before his papacy, Urban was the grand prior of Cluny and bishop of Ostia.[8] As pope, he dealt with Antipope Clement III, infighting of various Christian nations, and the Muslim incursions into Europe. In 1095 he started preaching the First Crusade (1096–99). He promised forgiveness and pardon for all of the past sins of those who would fight to reclaim the holy land from Muslims and free the eastern churches.[9] This pardon would also apply to those that would fight the Muslims in Spain. While the First Crusade resulted in occupation of Jerusalem from the Fatimids and consequent massacre of the Muslim population there, Pope Urban II died before he could receive this news.
He also set up the modern-day Roman Curia in the manner of a royal ecclesiastical court to help run the Church.[10]
He was beatified by Pope Leo XIII on 14 July 1881.
Angkor Wat built by Suryavarman II
King Suryavarman II depicted in a bas-relief at Angkor Wat
1096
Suryavarman 2 (Angkor Wat)
Suryavarman II (Khmer: សូរ្យវរ្ម័នទី២), posthumously named Paramavishnuloka, was a Khmer king from 1113 AD to 1145/1150 AD and the builder of Angkor Wat, the largest religious monument in the world which he dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu. His reign's monumental architecture, numerous military campaigns and restoration of strong government have led historians to rank Suryavarman as one of the empire's greatest kings.
