talwabatal - Burning Man 1274

Philippe le Bel

Philip IV (April–June 1268 – 29 November 1314), called Philip the Fair (French: Philippe le Bel), was King of France from 1285 to 1314. By virtue of his marriage with Joan I of Navarre, he was also King of Navarre as Philip I from 1284 to 1305, as well as Count of Champagne. Although Philip was known to be handsome, hence the epithet le Bel, his rigid, autocratic, imposing, and inflexible personality gained him (from friend and foe alike) other nicknames, such as the Iron King (French: le Roi de fer). His fierce opponent Bernard Saisset, bishop of Pamiers, said of him: "He is neither man nor beast. He is a statue."[2][a]

Philip, seeking to reduce the wealth and power of the nobility and clergy, relied instead on skillful civil servants, such as Guillaume de Nogaret and Enguerrand de Marigny, to govern the kingdom. The king, who sought an uncontested monarchy, compelled his upstart vassals by wars and restricted their feudal privileges, paving the way for the transformation of France from a feudal country to a centralized early modern state.[3] Internationally, Philip’s ambitions made him highly influential in European affairs, and for much of his reign he sought to place his relatives on foreign thrones. Princes from his house ruled in Hungary, and he tried and failed to make another relative the Holy Roman Emperor.

The most notable conflicts of Philip's reign include a dispute with the English over King Edward I's fiefs in southwestern France, and a war with the County of Flanders, who had rebelled against French royal authority and humiliated Philip at the Battle of the Golden Spurs in 1302. The war with the Flemish resulted in Philip's ultimate victory, after which he received a significant portion of Flemish cities, which were added to the crown lands along with a vast sum of money. Domestically, his reign was marked by struggles with the Jews and the Knights Templar. In heavy debt to both groups, Philip saw them as a "state within the state" and a recurring threat to royal power. In 1306 Philip expelled the Jews from France, followed by the total destruction of the Knights Templar the next year in 1307. To further strengthen the monarchy, Philip tried to tax and take control of the French clergy, leading to a violent dispute with Pope Boniface VIII. The ensuing conflict saw the pope's residence at Anagni attacked in September 1303 by French forces with the support of the Colonna family. Boniface was captured and held hostage for a number of days. This eventually resulted in the transfer of the papal court to the enclave of Avignon in 1309.

His final year saw a scandal amongst the royal family, known as the Tour de Nesle affair, in which Philip's three daughters-in-law were accused of adultery. His three sons were successively kings of France: Louis X, Philip V, and Charles IV. Their rapid successive deaths without surviving sons of their own would compromise the future of the French royal house, which had until then seemed secure, precipitating a succession crisis that would eventually lead to the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453).

Mongol invasions of Japan 1274, 1281

Royal Flag of the Goryeo dynasty. Flag's name is "Phoenix flag" ( hanja: 鳳旗, 봉기, Bong-gi). This flag is in the War Memorial of Korea.

Mongol invasions of Japan 1274, 1281

The Mongol fleet destroyed in a typhoon, ink and water on paper, by Kikuchi Yōsai, 1847

Letter from Kublai Khan of the "Great Mongol State" (大蒙古國) to the "King of Japan" (日本國王), written in Classical Chinese, the lingua franca in East Asia at the time, dated 8th Month, 1266. Now stored in Tōdai-ji, Nara, Japan.

Two Samurai with a dead Mongol at their feet. The one on the right is possibly Sō Sukekuni, the defending commander at Tsushima. Votive image (ema) at the Komodahama Shrine at Sasuura on Tsushima.

Samurai Mitsui Sukenaga (right) defeating the Mongolian invasion army (left)

The warrior Takezaki Suenaga

Suenaga presenting enemy heads to Adachi Morimune

The warrior Saburō Kagesuke

The cavalry of Shiraishi Michiyasu, riding to Suenaga's rescue

The defensive wall at Hakata

Mongol helmet

Japanese armour ō-yoroi, National Treasure, Kasuga grand shrine

Painting scrolls on the Mongol invasions (Japanese: Mooko shuurai e-kotoba), by Fukuda Taika, 1846 (copy of a 1293 work by an unknown artist). Ink and water colors on paper. Height 47 cm, length of the whole scrolls is 12.12 m (scroll 2) and 11.96 m (scroll 4). Tokyo National Museum, Inv. no. A-1637. The scrolls deal with the deeds of Takezaki Suenaga, who lived in southern Higo (now Matsubase municipality, Kumamoto prefecture) during the Mongol invasions of 1274 and 1281.

Mongol soldiers, second version

A typical Ko-Hōki (old Hōki) school tachi. Dōjigiri, by Yasutsuna. 12th century, Heian period, National Treasure, Tokyo National Museum. This sword is one of the Five Swords Under Heaven. (天下五剣 Tenka Goken)

1274

Mongol invasions of Japan

Major military efforts were taken by Kublai Khan of the Yuan dynasty in 1274 and 1281 to conquer the Japanese archipelago after the submission of the Korean kingdom of Goryeo to vassaldom. Ultimately a failure, the invasion attempts are of macro-historical importance because they set a limit on Mongol expansion and rank as nation-defining events in the history of Japan. The invasions are referred to in many works of fiction and are the earliest events for which the word kamikaze ("divine wind") is widely used, originating in reference to the two typhoons faced by the Yuan fleets.

The invasions were one of the earliest cases of gunpowder warfare outside of China. One of the most notable technological innovations during the war was the use of explosive, hand-thrown bombs.

The kamikaze

(Japanese: 神風, lit. 'divine wind') were two winds or storms that are said to have saved Japan from two Mongol fleets under Kublai Khan. These fleets attacked Japan in 1274 and again in 1281.[1] Due to the growth of Zen Buddhism among Samurai at the time, these were the first events where the typhoons were described as "divine wind" as much by their timing as by their force. Since Man'yōshū, the word kamikaze has been used as a Makurakotoba of waka introducing Ise Grand Shrine.

Mōko Shūrai Ekotoba

Mōko Shūrai Ekotoba (蒙古襲来絵詞, Illustrated Account of the Mongol Invasion) is a set of two Japanese illustrated handscrolls (emaki) commissioned by the samurai Takezaki Suenaga (1246–1314) as a record of his wartime deeds and valor during the Mongol invasions of Japan. The first scroll describes Suenaga's actions at the Battle of Bun'ei (1274), as well as his attempts to seek recognition and rewards from the government. The second scroll describes him at the naval Battle of Kōan (1281).

The work dates itself to 1293, while scholars similarly believe it was composed between the late 13th century and early 14th century, during the Kamakura period.[1] Their author and artist are unknown. Together, the scrolls contain some of the earliest artistic depictions of the Mongol invasions of Japan. Both scrolls are currently kept in the Museum of the Imperial Collections at Tokyo Imperial Palace.

1274

The Second Council of Lyon

was the fourteenth ecumenical council of the Roman Catholic Church, convoked on 31 March 1272 and convened in Lyon, Kingdom of Arles (in modern France), in 1274.[1] Pope Gregory X presided over the council, called to act on a pledge by Byzantine emperor Michael VIII to reunite the Eastern church with the West.[2] The council was attended by about 300 bishops, 60 abbots [3][better source needed] and more than a thousand prelates or their procurators, among whom were the representatives of the universities. Due to the great number of attendees, those who had come to Lyon without being specifically summoned were given "leave to depart with the blessing of God" and of the Pope. Among others who attended the council were James I of Aragon, the ambassador of the Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos with members of the Greek clergy and the ambassadors of Abaqa Khan of the Ilkhanate. Thomas Aquinas had been summoned to the council, but died en route at Fossanova Abbey. Bonaventure was present at the first four sessions, but died at Lyon on 15 July 1274. As at the First Council of Lyon, Thomas Cantilupe was an English attendee and a papal chaplain.[4]

In addition to Aragon, which James represented in person, representatives of the kings of Germany, England, Scotland, France, the Spains and Sicily [5] were present, with procurators also representing the kingdoms of Norway, Sweden, Hungary, Bohemia, Poland, and the "realm of Dacia". In the procedures to be observed in the council, for the first time the nations appeared as represented elements in an ecclesiastical council, as they had already become represented in the governing of medieval universities. This innovation marks a stepping-stone towards the acknowledgment of coherent ideas of nationhood, which were in the process of creating the European nation-states.

The main topics discussed at the council were the conquest of the Holy Land and the union of the Eastern and Western Churches. The first session took place on 7 May 1274 and was followed by five additional sessions on 18 May 1274, 4 or 7 June 1274, 6 July 1274, 16 July 1274, and 17 July 1274. By the end of the council, 31 constitutions were promulgated. In the second session, the fathers approved the decree Zelus fidei, which contained no juridical statutes but rather summed up constitutions about the perils of the Holy Land, the means for paying for a proposed crusade, the excommunication of pirates and corsairs and those who protected them or traded with them, a declaration of peace among Christians, a grant of an indulgence for those willing to go on crusade, restoration of communion with the Greeks, and the definition of the order and procedure to be observed in the council. The Greeks conceded on the issue of the Filioque (two words added to the Nicene Creed), and union was proclaimed, but the union was later repudiated by Andronicus II,[2] heir to Michael VIII. The council also recognized Rudolf I as Holy Roman Emperor, ending the interregnum.[2]

Cathedral of St John, Lyon, illuminated for a festival

The effigy of Pope Gregory X in Arezzo.

Niccolò and Maffeo Polo remitting a letter from Kublai Khan to Pope Gregory X in 1271.

15th-century miniature of Michael VIII, National Library of Russia.[e]

Facing Saint Peter's basilica, Rome, Italy, Vatican City.

Post-mortem portrait of Kublai Khan; made to make him appear about 30 years younger.

Portrait of young Kublai by Araniko, a Nepali artist in Kublai's court

Kublai Khan was chosen by his many supporters to become the next Great Khan at the Grand Kurultai in the year 1260. Kublai Khan and His Empress Enthroned, from a Jami al-Twarikh (or Chingiznama). Mughal dynasty, Reign of Akbar, 1596. Mughal Court. Opaque watercolor, ink, and gold on paper. India. Freer Gallery of Art. F1954.31 [1]

Kublai Khan in the Catalan Atlas (1375). The caption reads: "The most powerful prince of the Tartars is named Holubeim [Kubilay Khan], that means Great Khan. This emperor is richer than any other emperor in the world. This emperor is protected by twelve thousand horsemen with their four captains that stay at the court three months of the year."[35]

Painting of Kublai Khan on a hunting expedition, by Han Chinese court artist Liu Guandao, c. 1280.

Extract of the letter of Arghun to Philip IV of France, in the Mongolian script, dated 1289. French National Archives.

The Yuan dynasty of China, c. 1294

Chinese opera flourished during Yuan China.

The "Muslim trebuchet" (or Huihui Pao) used to breach the walls of Fancheng and Xiangyang.

In Ilkhanate Persia, Ghazan converted to Islam and recognized Kublai Khan as his suzerain.

Longevity Hill in Beijing, where Kublai Khan wrote his poem.

Laborers transporting construction materials to Khanbaliq

Statue of Kublai Khan in Sükhbaatar Square, Ulaanbaatar. Together with Ögedei Khan's, and the much larger Genghis Khan's statues, it forms a statue complex dedicated to the Mongol Empire.

1279

Kublai

(23 September 1215 – 18 February 1294), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Shizu of Yuan and his regnal name Setsen Khan, was the founder of the Yuan dynasty of China and the fifth khagan-emperor [note 1] of the Mongol Empire from 1260 to 1294, although after the division of the empire this was a nominal position. He proclaimed the empire's dynastic name "Great Yuan"[note 5] in 1271, and ruled Yuan China until his death in 1294.

Kublai was the second son of Tolui by his chief wife Sorghaghtani Beki, and a grandson of Genghis Khan. He was almost 12 when Genghis Khan died in 1227. He had succeeded his older brother Möngke as Khagan in 1260, but had to defeat his younger brother Ariq Böke in the Toluid Civil War lasting until 1264. This episode marked the beginning of the fragmentation of the empire.[5] Kublai's real power was limited to the Yuan Empire, even though as Khagan he still had influence in the Ilkhanate and, to a significantly lesser degree, in the Golden Horde.[6][7][8] If one considers the Mongol Empire at that time as a whole, his realm reached from the Pacific Ocean to the Black Sea, from Siberia to what is now Afghanistan.[9]

In 1271, Kublai established the Yuan dynasty and formally claimed orthodox succession from prior Chinese dynasties.[10] The Yuan dynasty came to rule over most of present-day China, Mongolia, Korea, southern Siberia, and other adjacent areas. He also amassed influence in the Middle East and Europe as khagan. By 1279, the Yuan conquest of the Song dynasty was completed and Kublai became the first non-Han emperor to rule all of China proper.

The imperial portrait of Kublai was part of an album of the portraits of Yuan emperors and empresses, now in the collection of the National Palace Museum in Taipei. White, the color of the imperial costume of Kublai, was the imperial color of the Yuan dynasty based on the Chinese philosophical concept of the Five Elements.[11]

19th-century depiction of Osman, by Konstantin Kapıdağlı

Ertuğrul's türbe (tomb) in Söğüt

Index of Behcetü't Tevârîh, one of the Ottoman sources that talks about Osman's origins

Osman I, the founder of the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman miniature painting. Located at Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi, Istanbul (Inv. H 1563, Fol. 37a).

16th-century depiction of Osman I by Paolo Veronese

16th-century miniature of Osman I

The territorial extent of the Ottoman Beylik upon the death of Osman I

A map of independent Turkic beyliks in Anatolia during the 14th century, showing the neighbouring Ottoman and Germiyanid beyliks…

Illustration of Osman rallying his warriors into battle

A mehter war drum, similar to the one sent to Osman from the Seljuk Sultan…

The declining Sultanate of Rûm, vassal of the Mongols, and the emerging beyliks, c. 1300…

Osman, an independent Emir, on his Takht

Gate of Bursa's Byzantine castle, which witnessed the long Ottoman siege…

Türbe of Osman I, Bursa

1280

Osman I

or Osman Ghazi (Ottoman Turkish: عثمان غازى, romanized: ʿOsmān Ġāzī; Turkish: I. Osman or Osman Gazi; died 1323/4),[1][3] sometimes transliterated archaically as Othman, was the founder of the Ottoman Empire (first known as the Ottoman Beylik or Emirate). While initially a small Turkoman [6] principality during Osman's lifetime, his descendants transformed into a world empire in the centuries after his death.[7] It existed until shortly after the end of World War I.

Owing to the scarcity of historical sources dating from his lifetime, very little factual information about Osman has survived. Not a single written source survives from Osman's reign,[8] and the Ottomans did not record the history of Osman's life until the fifteenth century, more than a hundred years after his death.[9] Because of this, historians find it very challenging to differentiate between fact and myth in the many stories told about him.[10] One historian has even gone so far as to declare it impossible, describing the period of Osman's life as a "black hole".[11]

According to later Ottoman tradition, Osman's ancestors were descendants of the Kayı tribe of Oghuz Turks.[12] However, many scholars of the early Ottomans regard it as a later fabrication meant to reinforce dynastic legitimacy.[12]

The Ottoman principality was one of many Anatolian beyliks that emerged in the second half of the thirteenth century. Situated in the region of Bithynia in the north of Asia Minor, Osman's principality found itself particularly well placed to launch attacks on the vulnerable Byzantine Empire, which his descendants would eventually go on to conquer.

1300

The Travels of Marco Polo

Book of the Marvels of the World (Italian: Il Milione, lit. 'The Million', deriving from Polo's nickname "Emilione"),[1] in English commonly called The Travels of Marco Polo, is a 13th-century travelogue written down by Rustichello da Pisa from stories told by Italian explorer Marco Polo. It describes Polo's travels through Asia between 1271 and 1295, and his experiences at the court of Kublai Khan.[2][3]

The book was written by romance writer Rustichello da Pisa, who worked from accounts which he had heard from Marco Polo when they were imprisoned together in Genoa.[4] Rustichello wrote it in Franco-Venetian,[5][6][7] a cultural language widespread in northern Italy between the subalpine belt and the lower Po between the 13th and 15th centuries.[8] It was originally known as Livre des Merveilles du Monde or Devisement du Monde ("Description of the World"). The book was translated into many European languages in Marco Polo's own lifetime, but the original manuscripts are now lost, and their reconstruction is a matter of textual criticism. A total of about 150 copies in various languages are known to exist, including in French,[9] Tuscan, two versions in Venetian, and two different versions in Latin.

From the beginning, there has been incredulity over Polo's sometimes fabulous stories, as well as a scholarly debate in recent times.[10] Some have questioned whether Marco had actually travelled to China or was just repeating stories that he had heard from other travellers.[11] Economic historian Mark Elvin concludes that recent work "demonstrates by specific example the ultimately overwhelming probability of the broad authenticity" of Polo's account, and that the book is, "in essence, authentic, and, when used with care, in broad terms to be trusted as a serious though obviously not always final, witness."

Marco Polo in Tartar costume. Alessandro Grevenbroeck(1695-1748)

The route Polo describes.

Map of Marco Polo's travels

The probable view of Marco Polo's own geography (drawn by Henry Yule, 1871).…

Delle meravigliose cose del mondo, 1496

Marco Polo, Il Milione, Chapter CXXIII and CXXIV

French "Livre des merveilles" front page[31]

Kublai Khan's court, from the French "Livre des merveilles"

Marco Polo travelling, Miniature from the Book "The Travels of Marco Polo" ("Il milione"), originally published during Polo's lifetime (c. 1254 - January 8, 1324), but frequently reprinted and translated.

Handwritten notes by Christopher Columbus on the Latin edition of Marco Polo's Le livre des merveilles.…

Le livre des merveilles, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, fr. 2810, Tav. 84r "Qui hae sì gran caldo che a pena vi si puote sofferire (...). Questa gente sono tutti neri, maschi e femmine, e vanno tutti ignudi, se non se tanto ch'egliono ricuoprono loro natura con un panno molto bianco. Costoro non hanno per peccato veruna lussuria"[43]…

City of Ayas visited by Marco Polo in 1271, from Le Livre des Merveilles

Alleged portrait of Marco Polo, c. 1600, from the Gallery of Monsignor Badia in Roma. Exact source unknown. See Henri Yule, The book of Ser Marco Polo, vol. 1, 1871 p. civ, 1903 p. 75. Inscription: Marcus Polus venetus totius orbis et Indie peregrator primus (Marco Polo, Venetian, first grant traveler in the whole world and the Indies) (presumed PD due to old age)

The Fra Mauro map upside-down to show North on top, compared to a modern satellite-based image of Earth by NASA , The 1453 Fra Mauro map was said by Giovanni Battista Ramusio (disputed by historian/cartographer Piero Falchetta, in whose work the quote appears) to have been partially based on the one brought from Cathay by Marco Polo .

1878 illustration by Léon Benett showing Ibn Battuta (center) and his guide (left) in Egypt

The Umayyad Mosque - The Dome of the Eagle (Qubbat Al-Nisr), Damascus

the ruins of the Great Mosque in Kilwa Kisiwani

Purported Mausoleum of Ibn Battuta in Tangier

Historic copy of selected parts of the Travel Report by Ibn Battuta, 1836 CE, Cairo…

This is a photo showing an interactive display about Ibn Battuta in Ibn Battuta Mall in Dubai, United Arab Emirates on 2 June 2007.

Grave of Ibn Battuta (French word "tombeau" misspelled).

1304

birth of Ibn Battuta

Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Battutah (Arabic: أَبُو عَبْد الله مُحَمَّد اِبْن عَبْد الله اللَّوَاتِيّ الطَّنْجِيّ اِبْن بَطُّوطَة, romanized: ʾAbū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh al-Lawātiyy aṭ-Ṭanjiyy ibn Baṭṭūṭah, /ˌɪbən bætˈtuːtɑː/; 24 February 1304 – 1368/1369),[a] commonly known as Ibn Battuta, was a Berber Maghrebi [7] scholar and explorer who travelled extensively in the lands of Afro-Eurasia, largely in the Muslim world. He travelled more than any other explorer in pre-modern history, totalling around 117,000 km (73,000 mi), surpassing Zheng He with about 50,000 km (31,000 mi) and Marco Polo with 24,000 km (15,000 mi).[8][9][10] Over a period of thirty years, Ibn Battuta visited most of southern Eurasia, including Central Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, China, and the Iberian Peninsula. Near the end of his life, he dictated an account of his journeys, titled A Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Travelling, but commonly known as The Rihla.

1314

The Battle of Bannockburn

(Scottish Gaelic: Blàr Allt nam Bànag or Blàr Allt a' Bhonnaich) fought on 23–24 June 1314, was a victory of the army of King of Scots Robert the Bruce over the army of King Edward II of England in the First War of Scottish Independence. It was a major turning point in the war, which only officially ended 14 years later with the de jure restoration of Scottish independence under the Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton; for this reason, Bannockburn is considered a landmark moment in Scottish history.[10]

King Edward II invaded Scotland after Bruce demanded in 1313 that' all supporters, still loyal to ousted Scottish king John Balliol, acknowledge Bruce as their king or lose their lands. Stirling Castle, a Scots royal fortress occupied by the English, was under siege by the Scottish army. King Edward assembled a formidable force of soldiers to relieve it – the largest army ever to invade Scotland. The English summoned 25,000 infantry soldiers and 2,000 horses from England, Ireland and Wales against 6,000 Scottish soldiers, that Bruce had divided into three different contingents.[11] Edward's attempt to raise the siege failed when he found his path blocked by a smaller army commanded by Bruce.[10]

The Scottish army was divided into four divisions of schiltrons commanded by (1) Bruce, (2) his brother Edward Bruce, (3) his nephew, Thomas Randolph, the Earl of Moray and (4) one jointly commanded by Sir James Douglas and the young Walter the Steward.[12] Bruce's friend, Angus Og Macdonald, Lord of the Isles, brought thousands of Islesmen to Bannockburn, including galloglass warriors, and King Robert assigned them the place of honour at his side in his own schiltron with the men of Carrick and Argyll.[13]

After Robert Bruce killed Sir Henry de Bohun on the first day of the battle, the English withdrew for the day. That night, Sir Alexander Seton, a Scottish noble serving in Edward's army, defected to the Scottish side and informed King Robert of the English camp's low morale, telling him they could win. Robert Bruce decided to launch a full-scale attack on the English forces the next day and to use his schiltrons as offensive units, as he had trained them. This was a strategy his predecessor William Wallace had not employed. The English army was defeated in a pitched battle which resulted in the deaths of several prominent commanders, including the Earl of Gloucester and Sir Robert Clifford, and capture of many others, including the Earl of Hereford.[10]

The victory against the English at Bannockburn is one of the most celebrated in Scottish history, and for centuries the battle has been commemorated in verse and art. The National Trust for Scotland operates the Bannockburn Visitor Centre (previously known as the Bannockburn Heritage Centre). Though the exact location for the battle is uncertain, a modern monument was erected in a field above a possible site of the battlefield, where the warring parties are believed to have camped, alongside a statue of Robert Bruce designed by Pilkington Jackson. The monument, along with the associated visitor centre, is one of the most popular tourist attractions in the area.

Royal Arms of the Kingdom of Scotland

Royal Arms of England

A depiction of the Battle of Bannockburn from a 1440s manuscript of Walter Bower's Scotichronicon. This is the earliest known depiction of the battle.

Holkham Bible, c. 1330: Depiction of a biblical battle, giving an impression of how soldiers were equipped at Bannockburn.

An interpretation of the battle of Bannockburn—first day

An interpretation of the battle of Bannockburn—second day.

Edmund Bleigh, Leighton (1909) "Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth" in Cassell's History of England, vol. 1 (The King's Edition ed.), London, New York, Toronto & Melbourne: Cassell and Company, pp. p. 373 Retrieved on 19 June 2009.

The hemicircle of the modern Bannockburn monument

Bruce brought his axe crashing down upon the head of Bohun , by Marshall, H. E. (Henrietta Elizabeth), b. 1876

Monument for the Battle of Bannockburn in Bannockburn

Statue of Robert the Bruce by Pilkington Jackson

Sheet 6 out of 12. Detail showing Mansa Musa sitting on a throne and holding a gold coin

The Djinguereber Mosque, commissioned by Mansa Musa in 1327

The Mali Empire at the time of Mansa Musa's death

1324

mansa moussa

Musa I (Arabic: منسا موسى, romanized: Mansā Mūsā, N'Ko: ߞߊ߲߬ߞߎ߬ ߡߎߛߊ߫; r. c. 1312 – c. 1337[a]) was the ninth[4] mansa of the Mali Empire, which reached its territorial peak during his reign. Musa is known for his wealth and generosity. He has been subject to popular claims that he is the wealthiest person in history,[5] but his actual wealth is not known with any certainty. His riches came from the mining of significant gold and salt deposits in the Mali Empire, along with the slave and ivory trade.[6][7]

At the time of Musa's ascension to the throne, Mali in large part consisted of the territory of the former Ghana Empire, which Mali had conquered. The Mali Empire consisted of land that is now part of Guinea, Senegal, Mauritania, The Gambia, and the modern state of Mali.

Musa went on hajj to Mecca in 1324, traveling with an enormous entourage and a vast supply of gold. En route, he spent time in Cairo, where his lavish gift-giving is said to have noticeably affected the value of gold in Egypt and garnered the attention of the wider Muslim world.

Musa expanded the borders of the Mali Empire, in particular incorporating the cities of Gao and Timbuktu into its territory. He sought closer ties with the rest of the Muslim world, particularly the Mamluk and Marinid Sultanates. He recruited scholars from the wider Muslim world to travel to Mali, such as the Andalusian poet Abu Ishaq al-Sahili, and helped establish Timbuktu as a center of Islamic learning. His reign is associated with numerous construction projects, including part of Djinguereber Mosque in Timbuktu. Musa's reign is often regarded as the zenith of Mali's power and prestige.

1325

Tenochtitlan

also known as Mexico-Tenochtitlan,[b] was a large Mexican altepetl in what is now the historic center of Mexico City. The exact date of the founding of the city is unclear. The date 13 March 1325 was chosen in 1925 to celebrate the 600th anniversary of the city.[2] The city was built on an island in what was then Lake Texcoco in the Valley of Mexico. The city was the capital of the expanding Aztec Empire in the 15th century[3] until it was captured by the Spanish in 1521.

At its peak, it was the largest city in the pre-Columbian Americas. It subsequently became a cabecera of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. Today, the ruins of Tenochtitlan are in the historic center of the Mexican capital. The World Heritage Site of Xochimilco contains what remains of the geography (water, boats, floating gardens) of the Mexica capital.

Tenochtitlan was one of two Mexica āltepētl (city-states or polities) on the island, the other being Tlatelolco. The city is located in modern-day Mexico City.

Glyph of Tenochtitlan

Painting of Tenochtitlan-Tlatelolco on Lake Texcoco in 1519 , Aztec (Mexica) Gallery, INAH, National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico City.

The Tlatelolco Marketplace as depicted at The Field Museum, Chicago

A picture of Tenochtitlan and a model of the Templo Mayor at the National Museum of Anthropology of Mexico City

National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City. Reconstruction of an Aztec market in Tenochtitlan.

From the Conquest of México series. Depicts the 1521 Fall of Tenochtitlan by Spanish Conquistador Hernán Cortés, in the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire.

Mexica pyramid of Ehecatl in the Metro Pino Suárez station, Mexico City Subway.

Fundación de México (The foundation of Mexico) – Tenochtitlán by Roberto Cueva del Río

Orhan's signature

Detail of an Ottoman miniature painting depicting Orhan, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1326 to 1360. The painting is preserved at the Topkapı Palace Museum in Istanbul, Turkey.

Ottoman Beylik around 1355, during Orhan's reign.

Bursa Orhan Gazi Mosque

The türbe of Orhan Gazi in Bursa

1326

orhan

Orhan Ghazi (Ottoman Turkish: اورخان غازی; Turkish: Orhan Gazi, also spelled Orkhan, c. 1281 – March 1362) was the second bey of the Ottoman Beylik from 1323/4 to 1362. He was born in Söğüt, as the son of Osman I.

In the early stages of his reign, Orhan focused his energies on conquering most of northwestern Anatolia. The majority of these areas were under Byzantine rule and he won his first battle at Pelekanon against the Byzantine Emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos. Orhan also occupied the lands of the Karasids of Balıkesir and the Ahis of Ankara.

A series of civil wars surrounding the ascension of the nine-year-old Byzantine emperor John V Palaiologos greatly benefited Orhan.[citation needed] In the Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347, the regent John VI Kantakouzenos married his daughter Theodora to Orhan and employed Ottoman warriors against the rival forces of the empress dowager, allowing them to loot Thrace. In the Byzantine civil war of 1352–1357, Kantakouzenos used Ottoman forces against John V, granting them the use of a European fortress at Çimpe around 1352.[2][3] A major earthquake devastated Gallipoli (modern Gelibolu) two years later, after which Orhan's son, Süleyman Pasha, occupied the town, giving the Ottomans a strong bridgehead into mainland Europe.

According to Muslim scholar Ibn Battuta, Orhan was "the greatest of the Turkmen kings and the richest in wealth, lands, and military forces".[4]

1335

Bursa

(Greek: Προῦσα, translit. Proûsa, Latin: Prusa, Ottoman Turkish: بروسه) is a city in northwestern Turkey and the administrative center of Bursa Province. The fourth-most populous city in Turkey and second-most populous in the Marmara Region, Bursa is one of the industrial centers of the country. Most of Turkey's automotive production takes place in Bursa.

As of 2019, the Metropolitan Province was home to 3,056,120 inhabitants, 2,161,990 of whom lived in the 3 city urban districts (Osmangazi, Yildirim and Nilufer) plus Gursu and Kestel, largely conurbated.[2]

Bursa was the first major and second overall capital of the Ottoman State between 1335 and 1363. The city was referred to as Hüdavendigar (خداوندگار, meaning "God's Gift" in Ottoman Turkish, a name of Persian origin) during the Ottoman period, while a more recent nickname is Yeşil Bursa ("Green Bursa") in reference to the parks and gardens located across its urban fabric, as well as to the vast and richly varied forests of the surrounding region. Mount Uludağ, known in classical antiquity as the Mysian Olympus or alternatively Bithynian Olympus, towers over the city, and has a well-known ski resort. Bursa has rather orderly urban growth and borders a fertile plain. The mausoleums of the early Ottoman sultans are located in Bursa, and the city's main landmarks include numerous edifices built throughout the Ottoman period. Bursa also has thermal baths, old Ottoman mansions, palaces, and several museums.

The shadow play characters Karagöz and Hacivat are based on historic personalities who lived and died in Bursa in the 14th century.[3]

The Green Mosque (Yeşil Cami) in Bursa, Turkey.

Yeşil Mosque

Entrance of the Yeşil Cami (Green Mosque)

Interior of Yeşil Mosque

The Koza Han (Turkish: Koza Hanı, lit. 'inn of the silk cocoon') is a historic caravanserai (han) in Bursa, Turkey. It is located in the heart of the city's historic market district.

Koza Han (Silk Bazaar) in Bursa

The entrance portal of the han

The vaulted corridor around the courtyard of the han

Irgandı Bridge

Athena, bronze, 2nd century AD, at Bursa Archaeological Museum

Ottoman architecture in Bursa

The Grand Mosque and Orhan Gazi Square in Bursa

Orhan Gazi Mosque

Bursa Citadel Main Gate

Emir Sultan Mosque

Muradiye Mosque and Külliye in Bursa

Şehreküstü Mosque

Bursa French Catholic Church

Atatürk delivering a speech in Bursa, 1924

Hüdavendigar Park along the shores of the Nilüfer River in Bursa , 24 August 2022

ibn khaldun

Ibn Khaldun (/ˈɪbən xælˈduːn/; Arabic: أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون الحضرمي, Abū Zayd ‘Abd ar-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn Khaldūn al-Ḥaḍramī; 27 May 1332 – 17 March 1406, 732-808 AH) was an Arab [10] sociologist, philosopher, and historian [11][12] widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest social scientists of the Middle Ages,[13] who made major contributions in the areas of historiography, sociology, economics, and demography.[14][15][note 1][16][note 2]

His best-known book, the Muqaddimah or Prolegomena ("Introduction"), which he wrote in six months as he states in his autobiography,[17] influenced 17th-century and 19th-century Ottoman historians such as Kâtip Çelebi, Mustafa Naima and Ahmed Cevdet Pasha, who used its theories to analyze the growth and decline of the Ottoman Empire.[18] Ibn Khaldun interacted with Tamerlane, the founder of the Timurid Empire.

Recently, Ibn Khaldun's works have been compared with those of influential European philosophers such as Niccolò Machiavelli, Giambattista Vico, David Hume, G. W. F. Hegel, Karl Marx, and Auguste Comte as well as the economists David Ricardo and Adam Smith, suggesting that their ideas found precedent (although not direct influence) in his. He has also been influential on certain modern Islamic thinkers (e.g. those of the traditionalist school), as well as on Reaganomics.

Bust of Ibn Khaldoun in the entrance of the Kasbah of Bejaia, Algeria.